On the "limitation" of Li

王英姿 • 11-27

The answer lies in Li’s instrumental connotation, that is, in a proper manner, to reasonably control human’s behavior instead of suppressing all of human’s instinct. The thought of Zhong Yong permeates in the holistic development of the philosophy of Li. Li, therefore, aims to reshape human being into a more humble and noble nature compared with mere animal-like instinct, cultivating our mental spirit and thus pushing our civilization forward.

袁凤梅 • 11-27

1. What is freedom?
Freedom is a concept that encompasses various aspects of human existence. It can have both individual and collective dimensions. In general, freedom refers to the ability and right to act, think, and live without unnecessary constraints, limitations, or interference.
Individual freedom is the capacity for self-determination and personal autonomy. It involves having the freedom to make choices, express oneself, pursue one's own goals, and live in accordance with one's values and beliefs. This includes political freedom, such as the right to vote and participate in the governance of one's society, as well as civil liberties like freedom of speech, religion, and assembly. Collective freedom relates to the rights and liberties of groups and communities. It includes the freedom of association, the ability to organize and advocate for shared interests, and the protection of minority rights. Collective freedom also encompasses societal progress towards equality, justice, and the elimination of discrimination and oppression.

2. Why does the political and economic structure of traditional Chinese society need "Li"?
In traditional Chinese society, "Li" refers to a set of ethical principles and rituals that govern social behavior and propriety. "Li" encompasses various aspects of life, including interpersonal relationships, family dynamics, public conduct, and governance. It is considered essential for maintaining social harmony and order. Li can promote the promotion of social cohesion. Li provides a norm to guide people's interpersonal relations and behavior, promotes harmony, respect and hierarchical order, and ensures social stability and cohesion. Rites can also promote the moral cultivation of individuals. By observing the prescribed rituals and rituals, individuals can be cultivated to have such qualities as filial piety, loyalty, humility and so on. Etiquette can also promote socio-economic stability, and trade and business receive codes of ethics that emphasize fair exchange, honesty and integrity, which promote economic stability and trust in business transactions.

3. Why did the Helo tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism?
The development of metaphysics and monotheism in Western culture cannot be solely attributed to the Hellenic tradition. However, it is true that the Hellenic tradition, particularly ancient Greek philosophy, played a significant role in shaping these concepts.
In ancient Greece, philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle explored fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, and the nature of reality. Their inquiries laid the foundation for metaphysics, which is the branch of philosophy that examines the fundamental principles of being and the nature of reality. Regarding monotheism, it's important to note that ancient Greek society was predominantly polytheistic, with multiple gods and goddesses being worshipped. However, the influence of Greek philosophy, including the concepts put forth by philosophers like Plato, contributed to the development of monotheistic ideas in later Western thought. Plato's idea of the "Form of the Good," which represents the ultimate source of truth, beauty, and morality, could be seen as a precursor to monotheistic ideas. Additionally, thinkers such as Philo of Alexandria in the Hellenistic period sought to reconcile Greek philosophy with Jewish theology and emphasized the existence of a single God. It is worth mentioning that the development of monotheism in Western culture was also greatly influenced by Judaism and Christianity, which emerged from different historical and cultural contexts. So, while the Hellenic tradition has contributed to the development of metaphysics and had some influence on the concept of monotheism, it is essential to recognize the complex factors that shaped these ideas in Western culture.

2班王佳馨 • 11-27

1. Within Kant's concept of justice, "freedom" is the condition in which people are able to exercise their rights and pursue their objectives without external hindrance. According to Kant, moral norms should impose restrictions on freedom in order to maintain a balance between the rights of the individual and the group. Freedom is an intrinsic right of mankind.

2. While ritual was highly valued in old Chinese culture, it is crucial to remember that society has changed significantly in modern China. Certain components of Chinese culture still have ritualistic elements, but the political and economic systems have changed to reflect contemporary advancements.

3. Countries classified as continental or maritime are distinguished by geographic and economic characteristics. Countries that are maritime—those that are around by seas—often have economies that are impacted by marine pursuits like trading, fishing, and navigation, whereas inland continental nations prioritize agriculture.

4. It would be incorrect to credit the emergence of monotheism and metaphysics in Western culture only to the Hellenistic tradition. Even while Western philosophical and theological thinking was influenced by the Hellenistic era, there were other elements that also had a role in the development of these ideas.

As a branch of philosophy, metaphysics studies the essence of reality, including the interrelationships between characteristics, matter and mind, and cause and effect. Ancient Greek philosophers who studied the essence of existence and knowing, such as Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Plato, are credited with inspiring metaphysical inquiry. It is important to remember, nevertheless, that metaphysical questions did not just arise in the Hellenistic tradition; they also developed on their own in other civilizations.

高秀芳 • 11-27

We cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. The following are my reasons.

We should first fully understand what is “li”, we should look at "li" as a "restraining force". "Li" from Confucianism is a kind of traditional ethical rule. Li emphasizes the emotional origination of these rules, which can be learned from the most natural and spontaneous ways of life of a person in his "small society". It ensures the relational harmony through positioning each one in his positional appropriateness. Confucius ' s Li is applicable to our time because of its emphasis on the " emotional " and " natural " origin of people ' s moral education. People learn from their parents or relatives about how to respect and love each other, without resorting to any " abstract " reason or invisible " God ". This is what Professor Li Zehou called " emotional ontology " or " pragmatic reason ".

Furthermore，Kant ' s freedom is not freedom of a person doing anything without restraint , but the freedom of a person imposing law upon himself . The basis of such an imposing force comes from the " absolute imperative “(the metaphysical reason or God) that each person is born with, which is called the " a prior " reason. This freedom well applies to a modernized society in which an individual shoulders responsibility for himself. To some extent, they express the same thoughts.

In addition，the traditional Chinese society need "Li". For the reason of keeping social in order and stability, legitimizing authority, moral and ethical guidance, and economic exchange, China's Traditional social Political Economy needs "Rituals”. The appearance of Rituals provided a framework for maintaining social order and harmony within the community. Furthermore, "ritual" is deeply intertwined with Confucian ethics, emphasizing virtues such as filial piety, respect for the elderly and social responsibility, so that the society has a unified value concept, which is conducive to the management of the ruling class, and at the same time, the unified value concept also plays an important role in economic transactions and trade.

In short, Confucius is not in line with inhumanity, but actually is humanity.

17班张森红 • 11-27

1.What is freedom?

Kant's conception of justice is based on the concept of freedom, which he defines as the ability to act according to one's own will without external coercion or interference. In this sense, freedom is the foundation of justice, since it allows individuals to make their own choices and take responsibility for their actions.

2.Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

(1)Social Order and Stability: Rituals provided a framework for societal order and harmony.

(2)Legitimization of Authority: Rituals were used to legitimize political authority. The performance of rituals by rulers and officials reinforced their status as rightful leaders, garnering respect and allegiance from the populace.

(3)Symbolism and Communication: Rituals conveyed symbolic meanings and communicated values. They served as a language through which societal norms, virtues, and ethical codes were expressed and transmitted. This shared understanding facilitated economic transactions and political relations.

3.Why did the Hiro tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism?

(1)Greek Philosophy and Metaphysics: The ancient Greeks, particularly philosophers like Parmenides, Plato, and Aristotle, laid the groundwork for metaphysics. Metaphysics, in this context, refers to the branch of philosophy concerned with fundamental questions about reality, existence, and the nature of being.

(2)Abrahamic Religions and Monotheism:The development of monotheism is closely tied to the Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The belief in one God, or monotheism, distinguishes these religions from polytheistic traditions.
The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) plays a crucial role in articulating the monotheistic concept, especially with the commandment "You shall have no other gods before me" (Exodus 20:3). Christianity further solidified monotheism through the doctrine of the Trinity.

(3)Interplay of Philosophy and Religion:Over time, there was an intricate interplay between philosophical inquiries and religious beliefs. Early Christian theologians, influenced by Greek philosophical thought, engaged in metaphysical discussions to articulate and defend their religious doctrines.

(4)Integration of Metaphysics and Monotheism:The integration of metaphysical concepts, such as the nature of God, existence, and reality, became integral to theological discussions within monotheistic traditions. For instance, the works of theologians like Augustine and Aquinas blended philosophical ideas with Christian theology.
In summary, the development of metaphysics and monotheism in Western culture is a multifaceted process influenced by philosophical inquiries, religious revelations, and the intellectual traditions of different historical periods.

张淑婧 • 11-27

No, we can't. Firstly, according to our country’s renowned philosopher, Feng Youlan, China is a continental country. To the ancient Chinese their land was the world. That is to say, throughout Chinese history, social and economic thought and policy have been centered around land use and distribution, which leads to Chinese people’s desire of stability. And "Li" is to maintain this stability. What’s more, people who want to draw the above conclusion actually make a wrong definition to the word, freedom. According to Kant, freedom is to is to act according to a law that I give myself, not according to the physical laws of nature or the laws of cause and effect. Does that mean we're free to do whatever we want? Not really. Kant says that the motive for our actions is the moral law itself. We do the right thing for the right reasons, not for selfish gratification or self-interest. What Confucius said is the same, I think, as what Kant said. “Restrain yourself and follow social norms”, what Confucius said does not mean that people sacrifice themselves to observe propriety to maintain the rule of the state, but that people act for the right reasons in order to keep social stability. Therefore we can’t simply draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.

何芝颖 • 11-27

Exactly, in some degrees, Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. But it can't be the argument to draw the conclusion that Confucius is in the line with inhumanity. To explain this, we should make following points clear :

1. What is "freedom"?
Fundermentally, freedom means the absence of restriction or hindrance. But the freedom here we talk about is a kind of social freedom. In another word, when someone is in society, her freedom should be reconsidered.
Social freedom is not a complete and isolated right of free any more. Social order and social relationships should be considered into. And part of human emotional instinct and free spirit should be ignored, or we should say, should be restrained.
2. Why does traditional society need Li or rituals to standarlize the order?
In traditional Chinese society, "Li" is not only a ritual, but a moral code to maintain social order. By regulating behavior, "rituals" encourage individuals to prioritize social interests and promote social harmony. Its role in economic and political structures is to establish a relatively fixed set of social norms and moral standards that help stabilize governance and social relations.

In conclusion, part freedom and rules like Li make human a social member, and make the traditional society keep a harmonious and ethical one.

15班王雨桐 • 11-27

No，Russell's view that "Confucius is in line with inhumanity" is narrow and limited. This is a misunderstanding and an oversimplification of Confucian philosophy. Confucius did emphasize the importance of Li and social structure, but not at the expense of humanity or free will.

First of all, we must understand the Confucian thought of Li. In the concept of Confucius, Li not only a kind of form, but also a kind of norms and guidance for human emotions and behaviors. He believes that through the cultivation of Li, people can better control their desires and emotions, and achieve inner peace and social harmony.

Secondly, we should realize that Confucius' thought of Li or ritual is not to suppress people's emotions and desires, but to guide people to express and release their emotions correctly. In Confucius' thought, human emotions and desires are natural, but only through correct guidance and regulation can they be reasonably expressed and released in society.

Finally, we should understand the relationship between Confucius' thoughts of Li and individual freedom and spirit. In Confucius' concept, individual freedom and spirit are not suppressed or ignored, but better realized through the cultivation of Li. He believes that only when people can properly control their emotions and desires can they truly realize their self-worth and free spirit.

18班余婷 • 11-27

No, we can't draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.

Firstly, we should know what is freedom. According to Kant's idea of justice, to act freely is to act autonomously or to act according to a law that I give myself. And freedom is the opposite of natural necessity . My will is determined not by the promptings of nature or my hunger or my appetite or my desires. Thus, this capacity to act freely is what gives human life its special dignity. Human can choose to act freely according to their laws.

Secondly, "Li" plays a significant role in the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society. The key reason is that China is a continental country. Chinese social system can be called that of family state because under it the state is conceived of in terms of the family. And in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son. So, "Li" can maintain social order and harmonious relationships between individuals. Moreover, "Li" is an indispensable part of maintaining the superstructure, which is beneficial for rulers to consolidate their position.

Thirdly, Greek philosophy originated from the pursuit of "universality of the world". Because after experiencing the negation of all objective principles by the Sophists, Socrates proposed the metaphysics of finding the "universal definition" behind concrete existence. The birth of monotheism was due to the fact that ancient people may have regarded the gods from different cultures as originating from the same divine source. It is in this context that religious movements began to demand a singular worship of a single god.

All in all, we should not consider Confucius to be inhumane. Because Confucius advocated for "benevolence" and "goodness", although "Li" had certain constraints on people, Confucius' ultimate goal was to promote social harmony and stability.

何公羽 • 11-28

1.What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）

Kant's definition of freedom emphasizes the inner autonomy of human beings and their ability to act without being influenced by external factors. He believes that freedom is a fundamental attribute of humans and the basis for moral behavior. In this sense, Kant advocates that individuals have absolute freedom, or free will, when facing moral laws.

2. Li (礼) is an important means of maintaining the political, economic structure, and social order in traditional Chinese society. In terms of its external manifestations, Li is not only a complex system of etiquette, but also a set of spiritual principles and norms of speech and behavior aimed at maintaining the patriarchal lineage relations and hierarchical system that have long existed in ancient Chinese society. The Li, which encompasses "political systems," "legal norms," "ethical and moral norms," and "ideological guidance," seems to limit people's behavior to some extent.

3.In contrast, the freedom advocated by Kant is unrestricted, and individuals have complete autonomy when facing moral laws. From this perspective, it seems that there is a conflict between the limitations of Li and the freedom defined by Kant. However, it is not completely equivalent to non-freedom and inhumanity.

If we understand Kant's concept of freedom from a broader perspective, we will find that Li and freedom are not inherently contradictory. The freedom advocated by Kant is an intrinsic, moral freedom, rather than an external behavior. Li, as a social norm, aims to maintain harmonious social order and protect the rights and interests of each individual. To some extent, Li can be seen as a means to achieve the moral freedom advocated by Kant.

Moreover, Confucius' Li emphasizes "benevolence" and "governing by virtue," emphasizing the harmonious coexistence between people and reflecting the care for human nature. Confucius' Li aims to maintain social order, reasonably regulate personal behavior, protect the legitimate rights and interests of each individual, and promote mutual respect and care, thus achieving the harmonious coexistence of individuals and society. This harmonious coexistence is part of the moral freedom advocated by Kant. Therefore, Confucius' Li is not completely equivalent to non-freedom and inhumanity.

Furthermore, Confucius' Li is not static, but constantly adjusted with the changes of the times and the development of society. For example, Confucius advocates "teaching without discrimination" and implementing Li according to different situations and needs. This flexibility makes Confucius' Li have a free and human side to some extent.

At the same time, in the Confucian classics, there are some teachings that encourage self-reflection and personal growth, and emphasize sympathy and compassion. For example, the concept of filial piety teaches people to respect and care for their parents, but also implies deep love and understanding between family members. In addition, Confucianism is a diverse tradition with a history of hundreds of years, including various schools and interpretations. Not all versions of Confucianism are equally strict or dogmatic. Some interpretations focus on cultivating moral character and pursuing wisdom, which can enhance individuals' emotional intelligence and spiritual growth. In short, although Confucianism emphasizes social order and moral values, it does not conflict with human emotional instincts or free spirits. It provides a framework for cultivating sympathy, wisdom, and moral character while maintaining a balance between personal needs and social responsibilities.

In conclusion, although Kant's concept of freedom may seem to conflict with the Li in traditional political and economic structures at first glance, they can be organically combined. Through the norms of Li, individuals and society can achieve harmony, and personal moral freedom can be ensured. In this sense, there is no essential conflict between Li and Kant's concept of freedom. In real life, the existence of Li helps to maintain social order, promote harmonious coexistence between people, and create a better environment for personal moral development. In this environment, individuals' free will can be fully realized, and true moral and social progress can be achieved. Therefore, we cannot simply equate Confucius' Li with non-freedom and inhumanity.

It is important to recognize that in Russell's case, his observation of Confucianism may be based on a specific interpretation or aspect of a tradition, rather than a comprehensive understanding of its philosophy. Therefore, before making such conclusions, we should have a comprehensive understanding of Confucianism and its diverse interpretations. We cannot simply equate Confucius' Li with non-freedom and inhumanity, but should understand and accept it from a broader perspective. In the historical development of our country, Li has played an important role in maintaining social stability and harmony while promoting moral growth. In modern society, we need to respect personal freedom, find a balance.

李孟琪 • 11-28

Of course, the answer is "no". I think Confucius doesn't mean inhumanity. For illustrate this point, I'd like to answer the follwing questions.

1. What is "Freedom"?

Kant's idea of justice is based on the concept of freedom, which he defines as the ability to act according to one's own will, without external coercion or interference. In this sense, freedom is the foundation of justice, as it allows individuals to make their own choices and be responsible for their actions.

2. Why does the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society require "etiquette"?

Social order, legitimizing authority, moral and ethical guidance and economic exchange demands "etiquette" from multiple aspects. For example:

Firstly, 'etiquette' is seen as a mechanism for maintaining social order. In ancient China, social hierarchy and identity differences were the core of economic and political structure. The concept of 'etiquette' establishes a set of behavioral norms and communication norms that help maintain social order and avoid conflicts and chaos caused by identity differences.

Secondly, 'etiquette' also played an important role in the economic activities of ancient China. Business activities are usually carried out in certain social relationships, and 'etiquette' specifies how people should treat each other in these relationships. By adhering to 'etiquette', people can establish trust and good relationships, thereby promoting smooth business transactions.

and so on.

So, the "Li" or "Rituals" in Confuicus was established to solidate a harmonious and peaceful human society, to hinder those evil and aweful emotional instinct and motivation.

邓婷婷 • 11-28

Confucius' emphasis on rituals, or Li, should not be seen as conflicting with human emotional instinct and free spirit. While it is true that rituals aim to organize and structure social and personal behaviors, Confucius' intention was to establish a harmonious society through ethical conduct and personal development.

Rituals in Confucianism serve as a means to cultivate virtues, promote social harmony, and maintain order. They are not meant to suppress individuality or restrict personal expression. Confucius believed that by practicing rituals, individuals could develop a sense of empathy and responsibility towards others. These practices were seen as essential in creating a well-functioning society where everyone could coexist harmoniously.

It is important to note that Confucianism also emphasizes the importance of cultivating one's own moral character and self-cultivation. Confucius taught that individuals should strive to be virtuous and cultivate their inner selves, which includes developing their emotional instincts and free spirit.

The interpretation of Confucius' teachings as inhumane depends on personal viewpoints and cultural context. While some may perceive the emphasis on rituals as restrictive, Confucius' aim was to create a society where people can live in harmony and respect one another. Ultimately, Confucian teachings promote ethical behavior, personal growth, and the well-being of society as a whole.

爱吃猫的鱼 • 11-28

Confucius's ethical teachings are not contrary to the natural freedom of human beings, but rather provide reasonable guidance and regulation for personal freedom. In Confucius's view, human nature is similar, but due to acquired habits and environmental influences, people's behavior and character can vary greatly. Therefore, he proposed the concept of "li" to regulate human behavior, hoping that through the edifying power of ritual propriety, people could follow social norms and develop good moral qualities and social customs.

Confucius once said: "Ritual propriety originates from the heart." This means that ritual propriety is not an external restraint, but a matter of inner consciousness. Confucius advocated the beauty of "modesty and harmony," believing that emotional expression should be moderate and not excessive. This is also an embodiment of the doctrine of the mean in Confucianism, aiming to guide people to pursue freedom while also self-restraining themselves and living in harmony with others.

It is worth noting that although Confucius's ethical teachings differ somewhat from Western humanistic thought that emphasizes individual freedom, both emphasize the dignity and value of human nature. In today's society, we can understand that Confucius's ethical teachings aim to guide people to form a good social order and interpersonal relationships, while individual freedom allows everyone to fully develop their potential and value. These two concepts are not contradictory, but complementary.

余雨星 • 11-28

Bertrand Russell's statement about Confucius being in line with inhumanity might be a misinterpretation. Confucius' teachings focused on ethical conduct, social harmony, and personal development. While the emphasis on rituals and social order may seem restrictive, it is important to understand that Confucius aimed to establish a harmonious society by promoting virtues such as benevolence, righteousness, and filial piety.

Confucius believed that by adhering to proper conduct and rituals, individuals could cultivate moral character, leading to a more just and harmonious society. Li, or rituals, were considered an essential aspect of this process. However, it's crucial to note that Confucius also emphasized the importance of balancing rituals with genuine humaneness and empathy.

It is essential to consider Confucius' teachings in their historical and cultural context. While some may argue that Confucius' emphasis on rituals restricts personal freedoms, others argue that his teachings provide a framework for social harmony and moral development. Ultimately, whether Confucius' ideas conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit is a matter of interpretation and personal viewpoint.

202121全甜甜 • 11-28

Confucius isn't in line with inhumanity. Rather, his thoughts of Li convey high humanity.

The true freedom, from Confucius, is to act with moralities. Confucius attaches much importance to Li, a principle guided by one's morality. Since morality is the core of humanity, he is in line with humanity.

We need to put this question under that historical background. At Confucius's times, Li is the tool for governance, but at the same time, Li requires people to be moral and uphold the society hierarchy.

16班周莲 • 11-28

1.What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）

Freedom, for Kant, act according to one's own will, is not influenced by external factors. It is a power to initiate action from oneself, and the only way to exercise this power is through the law of one's own will, the moral law.

2.Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"

In a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son, so social organization is automatic and hierarchic. And in Chinese social system, the state is conceived of the family, which means the whole Chinese state need “Ritual” to assert the power of the superior.

3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

Maritime Countries are related to sea. These countries often lack large terrestrial and subsistence agricultural economies and have to rely on commerce for the survival and development of their societies.

Continental countries have large terrestrial domains and may have more color of farming culture and agricultural civilization.

4.Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture encouraged people to think beyond the material world and develop metaphysics. This philosophical trend leads individuals to transcend sensory experiences and seek higher truths. At the same time, the religious beliefs in the Hellenistic tradition laid the foundation for monotheism, emphasizing faith in single God and emphasizing the order and unity of the cosmos.

陈子裕 • 11-28

1. (1) A priori freedom:

On the one hand, it implies independence from the empirical world (including the perceptual impulses), i.e., freedom from all mechanical causality, which is freedom in the negative sense. And on the other hand, it implies the initiation of a causal series on its own, which is freedom in the positive sense.

(2) Freedom of practice:

It is also divided into two levels, namely "free arbitrary" and "free will". Kant's initial transition from transcendental freedom to practical freedom was achieved through free arbitrariness. “Free arbitrariness” includes both technical and moral practice. Although technical practice is also "free", it does not get rid of sensual desires in the end. And moral practice, although it should also be realized in the sensual world, is itself based on the principle of super-sensibility, which is the principle of free will.

(3) A sense of freedom:

It also contains two aspects. The first one is “free beauty”. It refers to pure aesthetics, that is, beauty that is "free to make others like in itself" without any concept of purpose imposed on it. The second one is “the right to liberty”. Nature exploits the weakness of man's greed for pleasure and vanity to make them pursue as much as possible the arbitrariness of their own freedom and the satisfaction of the external senses, while at the same time secretly fulfilling their own intentions, that is, preparing us to feel our own moral value in ourselves. And this is precisely the meaning of freedom as a "right" of legitimacy in the state of the rule of law in the external world.

2. (1) In terms of nature, ancient Chinese rituals had a certain religious character and were elevated to the status of state ideology. From the perspective of the external manifestation of rites, it is not only a complex ritual system, but also a general term for a series of spiritual principles and words and deeds norms that have existed in ancient Chinese society for a long time and aim to maintain patriarchal blood relations and patriarchal hierarchy. Etiquette are a complex ritual system that embodies the social hierarchical order. Etiquette has the nature of law, and it has become the main norm for maintaining social order in ancient Chinese society. Etiquette is not only manifested as a political system and legal norms, but also an ethical norm that people generally follow in their daily lives, which guides people's ideology in the form of ethics and morality, so that people can accept the spirit of etiquette from the heart, follow the requirements of etiquette, and conform to the norms of etiquette.

(2) From the perspective of social control, as a normative system with rich connotations and fully reflecting the characteristics of Chinese culture, etiquette is a very important means to maintain the social order in ancient China. Firstly, it can maintain the hierarchical order of society and strengthen the hierarchical norms of social and political affairs. Secondly, it can confirm the special status of the royal power and maintain the ruling order of the royal power. Thirdly, it is a strict daily code of conduct.

3. (1) The Greeks lives in a maritime country and maintained their prosperity through commerce. They were primarily merchants. And what merchants have to deal with first are the abstract numbers used in their commercial accounts, and only then with concrete things that may be immediately apprehended through these numbers. Greek philosophers likewise took the concept by postulation as their starting point. They developed mathematics and mathematical reasoning.

(2) Merchants are also townsmen. Their activities demand that they live together in towns. Hence, they have a form of social organization not based on the common interest of the family so much as on that of the town.

(3) With the merchants of a maritime country conditions are otherwise. They have greater opportunity to see different people with different customs and different languages; they are accustomed to change and are not afraid of novelty.

4. The ancient Greeks attached great importance to political democracy and freedom of thought, they believed in the worth and dignity of the human person and did not submit to secularity, religion, and authority. With a rationalist attitude, they adhere to secularism, uphold the spirit of free exploration, positive thinking, and continuous innovation, and bring freedom, rationality, and democratic humanistic thoughts, optimistic and enterprising attitudes to life, and healthy and simple aesthetic concepts to the Western world.

17班沈慧茹 • 11-28

The assertion that Confucianism is aligned with inhumanity is a misunderstanding of the principles and teachings of Confucius. Here are several reasons why this conclusion is not accurate:

1. Emphasis on Humaneness (Ren): Confucius taught that the core of his philosophy was ren, or humaneness. This concept is about more than just being kind; it's about cultivating empathy, compassion, and treating others as you would like to be treated. This is very much in line with the human emotional instinct and spirit.

2. Social Harmony: Confucianism doesn't seek to suppress human nature but to guide it towards the greater good of society. By emphasizing the importance of li (rites) and the proper observance of social norms, Confucius aimed to create a harmonious society where individuals could thrive alongside one another. This structure doesn't stifle the human spirit but provides a framework for it to flourish.

3. Flexibility and Adaptation: Confucianism is not rigid; it allows for the adaptation of li to different situations and contexts. This means that while there is an emphasis on order and structure, there is also room for individuality and the expression of the human spirit.

4. The Role of Education: Confucius saw education as a key to self-improvement and the betterment of society. He believed that through learning and reflection, individuals could cultivate their moral characters and make contributions to their communities. This empowerment of the individual is hardly inhumane.

5. Cultivation of Virtue: Confucianism encourages the cultivation of virtues such as filial piety, loyalty, and integrity. These virtues are not in opposition to human emotions but are meant to guide and elevate them.

6. The Golden Rule: Confucius' teachings can be summed up in the golden rule, "Do not do to others what you would not want done to yourself." This principle is about empathy and respecting the dignity of others, which is very much in alignment with the human spirit.

In conclusion, Confucianism, as taught by Confucius, is not inhumane. It provides a framework for individuals to cultivate their moral characters, achieve social harmony, and live a life of purpose and meaning. The structure that it provides serves to support and elevate human emotions and the spirit, not suppress them.

16班张新宇 • 11-29

It would be inappropriate to draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity solely based on the perspective that Li or rituals may conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Confucianism, as advocated by Confucius, emphasizes the importance of rituals and social structures as a means to cultivate ethical behavior, moral integrity, and social harmony.

Confucius viewed rituals not as rigid constraints on human freedom, but rather as essential for fostering a civilized and harmonious society. The emphasis on Li is grounded in the belief that proper conduct and adherence to rituals contribute to social order and individual moral development. Confucius aimed to strike a balance between maintaining social order and allowing for personal expression within the framework of ethical behavior.

Bertrand Russell's interpretation on page 54 might be a specific viewpoint, but it's important to consider a broader understanding of Confucianism. Confucian teachings are multifaceted and encompass various aspects of life, including benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and filial piety. Confucius's emphasis on rituals is intended to guide individuals towards virtuous living rather than advocating inhumanity.

As for posting answers online, it depends on the context and platform. If it's an academic discussion or a forum for sharing perspectives, it could be appropriate to share your analysis. However, it's crucial to present a nuanced understanding of Confucianism and consider alternative viewpoints in any discussion.

1班邱菁菁 • 11-29

Some people believe Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit.

This is not entirely true. Because what Confucius said about Li is not to conflict with human emotional instincts. This can be seen in this example. Lin Fang asked what is the root of Li. Confucius replied, （大哉问！礼，与其奢也，宁位;丧，与其易也，宁威。）: "As far as the general state of ritual is concerned, it is better to be frugal than extravagant; As far as the funeral is concerned, it is better to have a genuine grief in the heart than to be well prepared for the ceremony. What Confucius meant was that ritual is only a form of expression, but it is not in the form but in the heart. Encouraging people to sincerely and face up to their inner sorrows, not just staying at the surface of the ceremony, but more importantly, to understand the root of the ceremony from the heart and feelings, in order to meet the requirements of the ceremony. Therefore, Confucius is actually in line with humility.

What's more, the Li mentioned by Confucius emphasizes respecting the old and the virtuous, the order of the elders and the young, the observance of etiquette, and the standardization of words and deeds. How can this be contrary to the spirit of freedom, unless the desired "freedom" is a freedom that transcends the norm and harms harmony. To borrow from a classmate' comment.According to Kant, true freedom is the opposite of necessity, it is also considered to mean that man has the free will to act not according to the law of nature or the law of cause and effect, but a law that he gives himself.Let's take another look at Learmed Hand's presentation titled The Spirit of Liberty. Freedom is the spirit of not being absolutely sure of what is right or wrong, the spirit of freedom is the spirit of understanding the minds of other men and women with common sense, and the spirit of freedom is the spirit of rejecting prejudice and making choices according to one's own interests. What makes me think of "do what you want, without going beyond the rules." What your heart wants, what your humanity, is all within the limits of the moral rules. Thus the greatest freedom is achieved.

Confucius's words always need to be tasted thousands of times to constantly dig into the deep meaning. Far beyond the understanding of elementary school, at this time, I think Confucius is actually saying that if a person has Li, then his behavior will not be offended, and his human nature will not conflict with the constraints of rules. From this point of view, Confucius and inhumanity cannot be compared.

From the third point of view, Confucius emphasized the hierarchical relationship and etiquette norms between "kings and ministers, fathers, sons, teachers, students ", but he was based on "people" and "benevolence", and treated them flexibly and did not violate "human nature". Confucius once asked the four students about their ambitions, because it was spare time, it was a casual teacher-student exchange, so he put down the teacher's shelf and encouraged the students to let go of their words and aspirations. Not only let the students sit with him.This sincere, equal, lively and intelligent teacher-student interaction proved this point.

To sum up, I think Confucius's remarks are in line with human nature.（Of course, it is not complete, there are more examples that can prove that Confucius is in line with human nature, otherwise how can it be passed down through the ages and praised）

11班黎斐瑕 • 11-29

According to Kant's concept of justice, "freedom" (Freedom) refers to the ability of each person to act based on their moral sense and principles in social environments, without being subjected to external coercion. Kant believes that a just society is one that respects individual freedom and ensures that everyone can act according to moral laws. In this sense, freedom and justice are closely related and promote each other.

The economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society needs "ritual" because it serves as a means of maintaining social order, promoting harmony, and ensuring the smooth functioning of society. By following established rituals and customs, individuals and groups know their respective roles and responsibilities, fostering a sense of unity and stability. Additionally, rituals provide a sense of identity and cultural continuity, reinforcing the values and beliefs that underpin the society. Overall, ritual serves to preserve and perpetuate the status quo, ensuring the stability and prosperity of the community.

The distinction between maritime and continental countries is based on geographical and economic factors. Maritime countries, surrounded by seas, often have economies influenced by maritime activities like trade, fishing, and navigation, while continental countries, located inland, focus more on agriculture.

The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture gave rise to metaphysics and monotheism due to the influential fusion of Greek philosophy and Judaism. After the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek culture spread throughout the Mediterranean region, including Judea. The Hellenistic Jews, seeking to understand and express their religious beliefs in a Greek context, developed the concept of monotheism, which emphasized the unity and supremacy of one God. This led to the emergence of early Christian theology and the development of philosophical systems like Platonism and Neoplatonism, which laid the groundwork for later metaphysical thinking. In summary, the Hellenistic tradition provided a framework for the integration of diverse religious and philosophical ideas, resulting in the growth of metaphysics and monotheism in Western culture.

Such a conclusion cannot be easily drawn. The Confucian etiquette advocated by Confucius aims to shape a harmonious social order and individual behavior norms, which does not mean violating human nature. His idea is to balance the relationship between humans and society, and between humans and nature, so that people can fully demonstrate their emotions and free spirit while observing moral norms. Here, it involves the understanding of "human nature" and "freedom," which cannot be simply equated with "inhumane" actions. The core of Confucian thought lies in "benevolence," emphasizing care for others and respect for nature, which does not conflict with human nature. In addition, Confucian etiquette is not rigid and unchanging, but constantly evolves with the changes of the times to adapt to the needs of social development. Therefore, we cannot simply assume that Confucius aligns with inhumane practices based on some superficial phenomena.

7班邱婷 • 11-29

I don't agree with the opinion that Confucius' Li is in line with inhumanity. While some argue that this structure may seem to conflict with the instinctual nature of human emotions and free spirit, Confucius believed that adherence to rituals fosters social harmony and moral development.

In traditional Chinese society, the economic and political structure emphasized hierarchical relationships. Rites played a crucial role in maintaining social order and stability. Confucius saw rituals as a means to cultivate virtue and establish a moral foundation within individuals, contributing to a well-ordered society. While this emphasis on structure might be perceived by some as restrictive, Confucius aimed for a harmonious society where individuals fulfilled their roles responsibly.

Therefore, the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity may oversimplify his philosophy, as he sought to balance structure with virtue for the greater good of society.

10班丁雨 • 11-29

No, we cannot say that Confucius is in line with inhumanity explained by Russel.I think it's not a conflict with them.

Because Confucianism advocates rites and advocates rites rule, for more than two thousand years, knowing books and reaching rites has become the basic symbol of a benevolent gentleman in the feudal society. Harmony, frugality, comity and respect have become the traditional virtues of China. China is known as the "land of etiquette". Rites plays a positive role in maintaining the unity and stability of the country, stabilizing social order, and restraining individual behavior. But in the feudal society, especially in its later period, the rites also had a side that bound people's thoughts and behaviors.

Confucius's idea of Li is not to limit people's emotions and free will, but to guide people to express these emotions and wills in the right way. He believed that human emotions and free spirit are part of human nature, and Li is a way to regulate these emotions and wills.

So it is a wrong conclusion.

曾欣 • 11-30

1. 什么是“自由”（video on Kant's idea of justice 5:00）
Kant said: "All human reason is wholly incapable of explaining how pure reason can be practical", "just as I want to try to inquire into how freedom itself is possible as a causality of will", "here is the highest limit of all moral research". Clearly, Kant believed that the will and reason were two worlds that stood side by side. On the one hand, the will is free and unfettered, while on the other hand, reason needs to be constrained by everything. Each person's individual will is free, but it can only be verified whether it can become a universal law after being filtered by reason.
2. 中国传统社会的经济政治结构为什么需要“礼”？
With the Chinese social system, which may be called that of the family state because under it the state is conceived of in terms of the family. In a city state which was practiced by the Greeks who are in maritime countries, the social state is no moral reason why one should be more important than than, or superior to, another. But in a family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son. The fact that the Chinese were farmers also explains why China failed to have an industrial revolution, which is instrumental for the introduction of the modern world. In China there have been not a few notable inventions or dicoveries, but we often find that these were discouraged than encouraged.
3. 西方文化中的希罗传统为什么会诞生形而上学和一神教？
The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture spurred contemplation beyond the material world, fostering the development of metaphysics. This philosophical trend leads individuals to go beyond sensory experience and seek a higher truth. And Descartes also once claimed that: Philosophy is like the "root" of a tree; physics, the "trunk", and other sciences, the "branches". The metaphysics is almost ingrained in the westerners. At the time of the rise of monotheism, the society was in the stage of the disintegration of primitive society and the formation of class society, in which time the contradictions between nobility and commoners in clan society and between slave owners and slaves after entering class society were very sharp. Therefore, the essence of metaphysics and the rise of the monotheism is to maintain the unity of society and to emphasize the universe's order and unity.
4. Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity(as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?

We cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. There are two reasons.
On the one hand, the “Li” proposed by Confucius is easy for people to live up. As Russell himself said, Confucianism’s moral code was not, like those of Buddhism and Christianity, so severe that only a few saints could hope to live up to it. In other words, it is easy for a man of the world to live up the imperative parts of the Confucian teaching. Actually, what it teaches people is how to be truly free. In Kant’s opinion, freedom is autonomy, is a kind of ability that a man can make choices to promote the happiness of the whole. And “Li” in Confucianism is in line with that concept. Because “Li” with various standards can prevent people from being enslaved by their single and temporary desire. What’s more, in an Chinese city state the social organization is not automatic. Thus, if we want to be a truly free citizen and build a democtatic country, Li is the indispensable system which needs us to obey.
On the other hand, the “Li” proposed by Confucius is in line with the good parts of human nature. As Confucius said, Li has four meanings: etiquette, hierarchy, sincerity and appropriateness. And it also has three kinds of functions: . Thus we can conclude that the reason why Li is produced and widly used in China is same as the reason why . Because both of them are aimes at bringing out the best part of human nature so as to mantain the social stability.
As is stressed out by Laozi: The way of heaven, human nature and social system are intertwined. A system that conforms to the way of heaven must respond to human nature from two aspects. Firstly, no system can make a man do something he cannot do at all.Secondly, the system cannot mobilize the bad and evil things in human nature, such as hatred, jealousy, violent tendencies, and so on. The worst system is the one that incites hatred between people and between classes and encourages people to engage in endless vicious fights. But the system “Li” or ritual is completely content with these two aspect proposed by Laozi and perfectly responds to human nature. Thus, we can’t conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. Instead, it is conformity with humanity.

2班周江懿 • 11-30

No, we cannot say that Confucius is in line with inhumanity as suggested by Russel.

It is true that Confucius's idea of Li was designed to regulate human behavior, but this does not mean that it conflicts with human emotional instinct and free spirit.

If the idea of Li is inhumane, why does traditional Chinese society advocate the it so much? Because Confucius emphasized that human behavior should conform to the norms of etiquette, so as to achieve a harmonious social order. At the same time, he emphasized the importance of human emotions and free will.

According to Kant ，the real freedom means the free will of a person to act according to his own nature, without being bound by natural laws in the sense of morality. However，human society establishes the necessary laws of nature in terms of objects, but also limits their freedom as a result. But the humans need to act according to the consistent and universal laws of free will.

Confucius's idea of Li is not to limit people's emotions and free will, but to guide people to express these emotions and wills in the right way. He believed that human emotions and free spirit are part of human nature, and Li is a way to regulate these emotions and wills.

Therefore, we cannot simply say that Confucius's idea of Li is inhuman. Rather, it aims to lead people to better understand and express their emotions and free spirit, so as to achieve a harmonious social order.

张海燕 • 11-30

From my perspective, this question is actually about whether it is possible that the western “freedom” and the eastern “Li” can co-exist in one nation. And I can’t go along with Bertrand Russel whose answer is “no” because “Li”represents inhumanity while “freedom” represents humanity. To illustrate my points, maybe we should take a look at “freedom ” first.

According to the dictionary, “freedom” refers to the right to do what you want without being controlled or restricted by anyone .But as Kant recognized, this conception of persons as free, equal, and autonomous moral agents gives rise to complications when the people in question are human beings. For Kant, the task of structuring our interactions in this way falls into political institutions, through which we conceive of our fellow citizens as free, equal, and independent. He connects freedom to politics, which is a typical western thinking model. “In Kant’s political philosophy,” Sarah Holtman, a Professor of Philosophy, elaborates, “the legal system is the framework of coordination through which citizens take each other into account in this way. The laws that are morally legitimate for Kant are those under which we could think of ourselves as free, equal, and independent citizens, voting unanimously to commit to them and make them our own.”

For Chinese, the word freedom (自由) means quite differently from the west, which is more moderate. Marxist philosophy holds that freedom has nothing to do with thinking, reason, will, and desire. But if people cannot scientifically understand them, blindly emphasize the supremacy and arbitrariness of subjective will, and pursue the so-called unfettered freedom, then the hard objective conditions and cold objective laws will surely shatter their good wishes.

The second point is why the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society need "Li".

Li, the Chinese word for propriety, is a distinctive feature of Chinese civilization. The content of propriety is all-encompassing from the relationship between the heavens and humans and the state ritual system to the speech, deportment, and even the dress code of society. In terms of nature, ancient Chinese “Li” had a certain religious character and were elevated to the status of national ideology. Put it directly, the steady of traditional society of China needs “Li”. It is not only a complex ritual system, but also a general term for a series of spiritual principles and norms of words and deeds that have existed for a long time in ancient Chinese society and aimed at maintaining patriarchal kinship and patriarchal hierarchy. The function of “Li” in the control of ancient Chinese society is manifested as (1)the "distinguish between the noble and the lowly" in order to maintain the hierarchical order of society; (2)affirmation of the special status of the royal power and the legitimacy of the power; (3)the norms of people's daily behavior and the criterion for judging right and wrong.

Based on the above analysis, it is true that “Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit”, but the next conclusion “Confucius is in line with inhumanity” is unreasonable. The external norm coming from “Li” doesn’t be in conflict with the internal humanity coming from “freedom”. Instead, they co-exist.

3班熊怡 • 12-01

Some people ask what is the root of Confucius ceremony? Confucius said, "This question is too big to answer, because the rites are too important." So Confucius gave an example to illustrate, this example is very important, which contains the connotation of Confucius's core thoughts on rites. Confucius said that it is better to be simple and clear than to formulate special complicated and cumbersome rites; For the funeral, rather than extravagance, it is better to grieve from the heart. These two simple examples are enough to show that Confucius definitely did not want the ethics to be restrictive, restrictive and oppressive. Confucius even opposed elaborate etiquette systems. The core of ritual is self-restraint from the heart, or the expression of true feelings in the heart. The meaning of "frugality" is not only simple and thrifty, but also simple and simple. It can be seen that the ritual mentioned by Confucius is "the law of the heart", which is in line with the human heart and human nature.

15许薪雨 • 12-01

It would be incorrect to conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based on the perspective that Li (rituals) conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Confucius's philosophy is deeply concerned with humanity, or "ren" (仁), which is often translated as humaneness, benevolence, or compassion. The concept of Li in Confucianism is not meant to suppress emotions or the free spirit but to guide them in a way that promotes social harmony and personal development.

Confucius believed that Li should express the inner virtue of ren and that rituals should be performed with sincerity, not as empty formalities. He advocated for a balance between following social norms and expressing genuine emotions. According to Confucian thought, the proper practice of Li helps individuals to cultivate their character, learn respect for others, and maintain the social fabric.

While some may view the structure and order proposed by Li as restrictive, Confucius saw them as essential for creating a just and stable society where individuals could flourish. His teachings encourage the cultivation of personal virtues, such as wisdom, righteousness, and propriety, which are considered to be in harmony with one's true nature.

In summary, Confucianism places a strong emphasis on ethical conduct, moral development, and the well-being of society, which are all aspects deeply rooted in humanity. Therefore, it would be a misinterpretation to equate Confucius's emphasis on Li with inhumanity.

张梦如 • 12-03

Confucius is absolutely not in line with inhumanity. I will give my reasons about this.

First of all, the definition of “freedom”. In our perspective, freedom perhaps mean a state where we can do anything we want. However, according to Kant, that is just our necessity, and freedom is opposite to the necessity. Based on his theory, freedom means we act freely, autonomously and according to a law we give ourselves. Thus, the shallow behavior of us is not just our freedom. So, what “Li” has bounded is our necessity, instead of our freedom.

Secondly, the economical and political structure of our ancient society need “Li” to maintain the stability of society and the unity of people. Only the society is stable can the people live in peace and harmony. Thus, we can say that, the goal of “Li” is to protect the people. In this case, we can not say it disobeyed the humanity. For another example, in the western world, before the existence of metaphysics, people lived in chaos. All the society lacked of stability and unity. And until that philosophy appeared, that state of living came to an end. This example proved in reverse that “Li” can help maintain humanity.

To sum up, we can not draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.

罗显旭 • 12-03

1.What is freedom:

In Kant's philosophy of justice, freedom is seen as a fundamental moral and political concept. For Kant, freedom refers to the ability of individuals to independently decide their own actions and choices, without being subject to external or internal coercion or constraints. Freedom is a natural right that every person possesses, and it is a fundamental dignity and respect for human beings.
Kant emphasized that the fundamental principle of freedom is the principle of universal law. Simply put, this means that individual behavior should be universally applicable, rather than specific or individual. If a certain behavior does not conform to universal laws, then it is not free.Kant also proposed two important aspects of freedom: the external and internal aspects of freedom. External freedom refers to the freedom of individuals to act within the framework of laws and institutions, without being restricted by external coercion. Intrinsic freedom refers to the individual's ability to independently decide their own behavior and values, without being dominated by internal factors such as desire, fear, or other deceptive motives.

2.Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

In traditional Chinese society, the economic and political structure was heavily influenced by Confucianism, which emphasized the importance of ritual, or “Li” 礼. Ritual in this context refers to a set of traditional norms, customs, and practices that governed various aspects of life, including social etiquette, moral conduct, and governance.

There are several reasons why ritual was considered important in the traditional Chinese society’s economic and political structure:Social Harmony: Ritual was seen as a means to achieve social harmony and order. It provided a set of guidelines for individuals to follow in their interactions with others, helping to establish hierarchies, maintain social order, and promote stability within the community.Moral Education: Ritual played a significant role in moral education, particularly in fostering moral values such as filial piety, respect for elders, loyalty, and righteousness. Through performing ritualistic practices, individuals were expected to cultivate virtuous behavior and develop a sense of responsibility towards society.Legitimizing Authority: Ritual rituals were employed to legitimize authority and establish a hierarchical social structure. They provided a framework for the ruling class to maintain their power and control over the population by emphasizing the importance of proper conduct and obedience to authority.Symbolic Communication: Rituals served as a form of symbolic communication, allowing for the transmission of cultural values, customs, and traditions across generations. They helped reinforce the cultural identity of the society and provided a sense of belonging to its members.

3.Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

The Hellenistic period in Western culture refers to the time after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, when the Greek Empire expanded and its culture spread throughout the Mediterranean and beyond. During this time, philosophers in the Greek world began to engage with ideas about the nature of reality, the universe, and the divine, which eventually gave rise to metaphysics and monotheism.

One reason for this development is the fact that the Hellenistic world was marked by an unprecedented level of cultural and intellectual exchange between different societies, including the Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and Jewish cultures. This exchange of ideas and traditions led to a cross-fertilization of philosophical and religious beliefs, which contributed to the development of metaphysical and monotheistic thought.

In particular, the Greek philosophers of the Hellenistic period, such as Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics, were interested in understanding the fundamental nature of reality, and sought to answer questions about the nature of existence, the relationship between the physical and the spiritual, and the nature of the divine.

This philosophical inquiry into the nature of existence and the divine had a profound impact on the development of monotheistic belief systems, which emerged in the Hellenistic period. Monotheism, which is the belief in one God, drew from the philosophical tradition of the Greeks by emphasizing the idea of a single, all-powerful divine entity that governs the universe, rather than multiple gods with specific domains and areas of authority.

Thus, the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture contributed to the development of metaphysical and monotheistic thought through its emphasis on philosophical inquiry, the cross-fertilization of cultural and religious beliefs, and the emergence of new religious traditions that drew from these philosophical ideas.

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