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  Phoenix. • 12-28

  Confucius believed that religious rituals were very important to maintaining social order and harmony. He sees them as a way of regulating and constructing social and personal behavior, ensuring that people act according to their roles and responsibilities in society. However, Confucius did not believe that religious rituals should conflict with the human emotional instinct or free spirit. In fact, he believed that the cultivation of emotion and the development of noble character are the necessary conditions for the ritual.Confucius believed that ceremonies should be sincere and respected, and they should promote the well-being of the whole society. He sees them as a means of fostering human virtue, rather than a form of oppression or inhumanity.

  So we cannot conclude that Confucius is inhumanity based on his view of the ceremony. Instead, we should understand the ritual teachings of Confucius as a way to promote social harmony and personal development through fostering virtue and respect for others.

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  18班程悦 • 12-28

  It can't be concluded that Confucius is inhuman. There are three reasons.

  First of all, freedom is not to do anything you want, but to act independently according to the law you give yourself, which is also Kant's view of freedom. Therefore, organized social and personal behavior does not conflict with the spirit of freedom; On the contrary, free action must be carried out in an orderly manner in social organizations.

  Secondly, the closed and scattered agricultural economy in ancient China, formed by the special geographical conditions in China, is the economic source of people's conservative habits, and most agricultural activities are family-based. In addition, China's ancient political system was a relatively stable one. Due to the characteristics of China's ancient economic and political structure, etiquette is a necessary condition to maintain social stability and economic development.

  In short, although Li is about organizing and constructing social and personal behaviors, social unity and stability are the necessary conditions for people to move freely, so Confucius is not inhuman, but actually humane.

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  21级18班杨驰 • 12-29

  1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）

  Kant's concept of justice centers around the idea of treating individuals as ends in themselves and not merely as means to an end. In this context, justice is about respecting and upholding individual rights, including the right to freedom. This means that individuals should be able to exercise their freedom as long as it does not infringe on the equal freedom of others.

  2.Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"

  It is important to note that while traditional Chinese society placed great emphasis on ritual, contemporary China has experienced significant societal changes. While elements of ritual remain in certain aspects of Chinese culture, the economic and political structures have evolved to accommodate modern developments.

  3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

  The distinction between maritime countries and continental countries is primarily based on their geography, resources, and economic characteristics.

  4.Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

  The rise of metaphysics and monotheism in Western culture cannot be solely attributed to the Hellenistic tradition. While the Hellenistic period did have an influence on Western philosophical and religious thought, it is necessary to consider multiple factors that contributed to the development of these concepts.

  Metaphysics, as a philosophical discipline, examines the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, substance and attributes, and cause and effect. The origins of metaphysical inquiry can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophers like Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Plato, who explored questions about the nature of existence and knowledge. However, it is worth noting that metaphysical inquiries were not limited to the Hellenistic tradition but also evolved independently in other cultures.

  Similarly, the concept of monotheism, the belief in one God, has roots in various religious and philosophical traditions across different cultures. In the context of Western culture, monotheism gained prominence primarily through the Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These religions emerged in different historical periods and regions, and their teachings and beliefs were influenced by a variety of cultural factors, including the Hellenistic period in some cases.

  It is important to recognize that cultural, historical, and socio-political contexts play significant roles in the evolution of philosophical and religious ideas. While the Hellenistic tradition contributed to the development of metaphysics and had some impact on monotheism, it is crucial to consider the broader historical and cultural landscape to fully understand the emergence and evolution of these concepts in Western culture.

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  21级19班王欣 • 12-29

  No, I don't agree with the conclusion that Confucious is in line with inhumanity.

  Confucianism can be said to be a system of moralpolitical andsocial principles concerned with perfecting human character. According toConfucius, humans, though not always good, can become good throughlearning and through service to others.Confucius was optimistic about human potential; he wanted people to be sages or wise persons who instantiate the goodness of the heavens within them. This is accomplished by being benevolent. [When you read this beautiful idea it is hard not to contrast it with all the ugliness that surrounds us.] The result of being moral, essentially benevolent, is joy. Confucius was not clear on why so few people become wise, benevolent sages, but he suggested that it might be that we freely choose not to be good. He also thought that our environment plays a large role in shaping us. [Here we see the tension between freedom and determinism, one of the classic philosophical problems.Thus we need to be molded so as to achieve moral perfection, molded especially by a culture and a social system conducive to our moral development.

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  余治卓 • 12-29

  1、What is “Freedom”？（on Kant's idea of Justice）

  Kant believed that human moral norms and rights and obligations stem from human free will, and moral obligations are a type of right and obligation.Believing that justice is a right and obligation based on free will, a combination of rights and legal systems where people can freely exercise their own will and coexist with the freedom of all others in a legal state."Freedom" is the central idea of Kant's moral philosophy. Kant believed that humans are both "sensory" and "tangible", as well as "conceptual" and "ontological". In the world of experience, people are determined and not free, and their desires and actions are governed by the laws of causality in nature; Human beings are a free, morally active force that can make choices between good and evil, and are free and self determined.

  2、Why does the traditional Chinese society‘s economic and political structure need“Ritual”？

  Due to Confucianism's reverence for propriety and promotion of the rule of propriety, for over two thousand years, knowledge of books and etiquette has become a fundamental symbol of benevolence and gentlemanly conduct in feudal society. Harmony, frugality, courtesy, and respect have become traditional virtues in China. China is known as the "land of etiquette". Rites have played a positive role in maintaining national unity and stability, stabilizing social order, and restraining individual behavior. But in feudal society, especially in its later stages, ritual also had a side that constrained people's thinking and behavior.

  3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries Maritime Countries: Maritime countries are those that have a significant coastline and rely on the sea for trade, transportation. Continental Countries: Continental countries are those that are geographically dominated by landmasses and have limited access to the sea. The difference between maritime countries and continental countries is primarily based on their geography, resources, and economic characteristics.

  4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

  Firstly, the Hiro tradition emphasizes curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge about the unknown Desire, this spirit has driven philosophers to explore metaphysics. They try to understand by thinking about a world beyond experience.The essence and purpose of the world, thus forming metaphysics. Secondly, the Hiro tradition also values language and logical thinking. Philosophers explore the essence and truth of the world through language and logical analysis, which also provides an important way of thinking for the formation of metaphysics.

  On the other hand, philosophers in the Heroic tradition gradually realized the chaos and instability of the polytheistic faith. They believe that only one god can create and maintain the order and truth of the universe. Therefore, monotheistic beliefs gradually emerged in the Greek tradition. Philosophers attempt to prove the existence and essence of a god by contemplating the essence and purpose of the universe.

  Overall, the spirit of reflection, reversal, and retrospective in the Hiro tradition, as well as the curiosity and pursuit of knowledge about unknown things Desire, as well as the emphasis on language, provided important ideological foundations and cultural backgrounds for the birth of metaphysics and monotheism.

  5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? Firstly, we need to understand the context and background in which Russell criticized Confucius. Russell interpreted and evaluated Confucius in the context of Western culture, which differs from Eastern culture in many aspects. Therefore, we need to conduct a specific analysis of Russell's criticism to see if it is reasonable.

  Secondly, Confucius' ideas have many aspects, including benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith. These ideas are often positive and in line with humanitarian values. Therefore, we cannot simply reject Confucius' ideas just because Russell criticized some of his views.Finally, we need to recognize that every culture, ideology, or value has its advantages and disadvantages. We cannot deny a certain idea or value simply because it has flaws.

  On the contrary, we should conduct a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of it, to see which aspects are in line with humanitarianism and which aspects need improvement. Therefore, I believe that we cannot simply conclude that Confucius is inhumane. We need to conduct a comprehensive analysis of Confucius' thoughts to see if they conform to humanitarian values.

  At the same time, we also need to recognize any culture or ideology Both or values have their advantages and disadvantages, requiring comprehensive evaluation and improvement

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  11班焦美淅 • 12-30

  1. What is “freedom”？（on Kant’s idea of Justice)
  Kant believed that human beings possess free will and this free will is the basis of our actions and the source of our moral responsibility. He thinks freedom does not mean that we can act freely without any restrictions. On the contrary, freedom is a rational way of acting, the ability to follow moral laws and to control one's desires.

  2.  Why does the traditional Chinese society’s economic and political structure need “Ritual ”?
  In maritime countries, merchants live together in towns and their social organizations base on the common interest of the town. In this situation, the social organization is not automatic because there is no moral reason why one should be superior to another among merchants. But Chinese social system is convinced of in terms of the family. In family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son. So the “Ritual ” establishes the social norms and moral standards, contributing to the authority government.

  3. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
  The Hellenistic tradition emphasizes curiosity and the pursuit of  unknown knowledge. This spirit drove philosophers to try to understand the nature and purpose of the world through thinking beyond experience, promoting the formation of metaphysics. Secondly, Hellenistic tradition also attaches importance to language and logical thinking, which provides an important way of thinking for the formation of metaphysics. Next, Hellenistic tradition emphasizes the exploration of mystery and supernatural and the universe’s order, promoting the generation of early monotheistic beliefs. 

  4. We can’t draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
   Russell's evaluation of the inhumanity of Confucianism is narrow and one-sided. Confucius emphasizes the importance of ritual and social structure, but this is not based on the damage of free will and the expense of humanity. It also emphasizes the ethical virtues, moral principles, empathy and so on, which are in line with humanity. Just like an example in the textbook, it is bad manners in China to attack your adversary in wet weather because of the influence of Confucian ethics.

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  曾钰媚 • 12-30

  1、What is “Freedom”？（on Kant's idea of Justice）

  Kant believed that human moral norms and rights and obligations stem from human free will, and moral obligations are a type of right and obligation.Believing that justice is a right and obligation based on free will, a combination of rights and legal systems where people can freely exercise their own will and coexist with the freedom of all others in a legal state."Freedom" is the central idea of Kant's moral philosophy. Kant believed that humans are both "sensory" and "tangible", as well as "conceptual" and "ontological". In the world of experience, people are determined and not free, and their desires and actions are governed by the laws of causality in nature; Human beings are a free, morally active force that can make choices between good and evil, and are free and self determined.

  2、Why does the traditional Chinese society‘s economic and political structure need“Ritual”？

  Due to Confucianism's reverence for propriety and promotion of the rule of propriety, for over two thousand years, knowledge of books and etiquette has become a fundamental symbol of benevolence and gentlemanly conduct in feudal society. Harmony, frugality, courtesy, and respect have become traditional virtues in China. China is known as the "land of etiquette". Rites have played a positive role in maintaining national unity and stability, stabilizing social order, and restraining individual behavior. But in feudal society, especially in its later stages, ritual also had a side that constrained people's thinking and behavior.

  3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries Maritime Countries: Maritime countries are those that have a significant coastline and rely on the sea for trade, transportation. Continental Countries: Continental countries are those that are geographically dominated by landmasses and have limited access to the sea. The difference between maritime countries and continental countries is primarily based on their geography, resources, and economic characteristics.

  4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

  Firstly, the Hiro tradition emphasizes curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge about the unknown Desire, this spirit has driven philosophers to explore metaphysics. They try to understand by thinking about a world beyond experience.The essence and purpose of the world, thus forming metaphysics. Secondly, the Hiro tradition also values language and logical thinking. Philosophers explore the essence and truth of the world through language and logical analysis, which also provides an important way of thinking for the formation of metaphysics.

  On the other hand, philosophers in the Heroic tradition gradually realized the chaos and instability of the polytheistic faith. They believe that only one god can create and maintain the order and truth of the universe. Therefore, monotheistic beliefs gradually emerged in the Greek tradition. Philosophers attempt to prove the existence and essence of a god by contemplating the essence and purpose of the universe.

  Overall, the spirit of reflection, reversal, and retrospective in the Hiro tradition, as well as the curiosity and pursuit of knowledge about unknown things Desire, as well as the emphasis on language, provided important ideological foundations and cultural backgrounds for the birth of metaphysics and monotheism.

  5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? Firstly, we need to understand the context and background in which Russell criticized Confucius. Russell interpreted and evaluated Confucius in the context of Western culture, which differs from Eastern culture in many aspects. Therefore, we need to conduct a specific analysis of Russell's criticism to see if it is reasonable.

  Secondly, Confucius' ideas have many aspects, including benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith. These ideas are often positive and in line with humanitarian values. Therefore, we cannot simply reject Confucius' ideas just because Russell criticized some of his views.Finally, we need to recognize that every culture, ideology, or value has its advantages and disadvantages. We cannot deny a certain idea or value simply because it has flaws.

  On the contrary, we should conduct a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of it, to see which aspects are in line with humanitarianism and which aspects need improvement. Therefore, I believe that we cannot simply conclude that Confucius is inhumane. We need to conduct a comprehensive analysis of Confucius' thoughts to see if they conform to humanitarian values.

  At the same time, we also need to recognize any culture or ideology Both or values have their advantages and disadvantages, requiring comprehensive evaluation and improvement.

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  15班黄蓝儿 • 12-30

  No, we cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.

  We need to figure out the multiple meanings of "Li". "Li" can not only be understood as "ceremony" or "etiquette", but also be defined as "sincerity". It is related to benevolence, reason, empathy, and so on. Humans are not animals that act solely based on instinct. Sometimes following etiquette may seem to bring 'pain' and 'restraint', but it brings long-term benefits. Therefore, the "essence" of Li lies not in the "form", but in our "heart". To understand Li better, we can not merely stay on the forms of those ceremonies, but more importantly, we should make our heart and feelings conform to the requirements of "Li".However, according to Kant, freedom is not about doing what you want and getting what you want. On the contrary, freedom is the opposite of necessity. Top act freely is to act according to a law given by oneself and to choose the end itself for its own sake. Unlimited freedom can lead to chaos in the social order.

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  15班易灿 • 12-30

  1.

  Freedom, for Kant, is a power to initiate action from oneself, and the only way to exercise this power is through the law of one's own will, the moral law. Immoral action is not thereby rendered impossible, but it also does not express a genuine ability.

  2.

  Rituals were used to legitimize political power and establish the authority of rulers. The emperor and other rulers performed elaborate rituals to demonstrate their connection with the divine and their mandate to rule. This reinforced the hierarchical structure of society and ensured the obedience of the population.Secondly,rituals helped establish and maintain social hierarchy and order. They provided a set of rules for proper behavior and interactions between individuals based on their social roles and positions. This created stability and harmony in society, reducing conflicts and promoting cooperation.

  3.

  Maritime countries are those that have a significant coastline and rely on the sea for trade, transportation. Continental Countries: Continental countries are those that are geographically dominated by landmasses and have limited access to the sea. The difference between maritime countries and continental countries is primarily based on their geography, resources, and economic characteristics.

  4.

  The Hellenistic period in Western culture, which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great and encompassed the spreading influence of Greek culture, had a significant impact on the development of metaphysics and monotheism. To begin with,The Hellenistic period brought the Greeks into contact with various Eastern philosophies, including those of Persia, Egypt, and the Near East. These philosophies often incorporated metaphysical concepts and mystical ideas about the nature of the universe and the divine. The blending of Greek and Eastern philosophical traditions influenced the development of metaphysical thought. Additionally,The Hellenistic period was characterized by a sense of uncertainty and a quest for meaning and purpose in life. It was a time of political and social upheaval, which led thinkers to question traditional beliefs and seek answers beyond the physical realm. Metaphysics provided a framework for exploring deep existential questions, such as the nature of reality, existence, and the ultimate purpose of human life.As for the cultural syncretism and religious shifts,the Hellenistic period witnessed a blending of diverse cultures and religious beliefs due to Alexander the Great's conquests. This cultural syncretism led to the exchange and merging of ideas, including religious concepts. In this context, monotheistic tendencies emerged, influenced by the merging of various religious traditions and the exploration of philosophical concepts about the unity and nature of the divine. It's important to note that the development of metaphysics and monotheism during the Hellenistic period was a complex and multifaceted process influenced by various historical, cultural, and intellectual factors. The specific details and influences can vary depending on the region and thinkers involv

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  周宇晨 • 12-30

  1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）

  Kant's idea of justice is based on the concept of freedom, which he defines as the ability to act according to one's own will, without external coercion or interference. In this sense, freedom is the foundation of justice, as it allows individuals to make their own choices and be responsible for their actions.

  2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

  Social Order and Stability: Rituals provided a framework for maintaining social order and harmony within the community. 

  Legitimizing Authority: Rituals were used to legitimize the authority of rulers and government officials.

  Moral and Ethical Guidance: Rituals were deeply intertwined with Confucian ethics, emphasizing virtues such as filial piety, respect for elders, and social responsibility.

  All in all, Confucius' "Li", which highlights the "people-oriented" ideology, doesn't mean to hide the nature of "humanity", but serves as a natural expression of human emotions.

  Economic Exchange: Rituals also played a role in economic transactions and trade. 

   

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  2班缪加文 • 12-30

   1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）

  "Freedom" in Kant's justice philosophy refers to the state where individuals exercise their rights and pursue goals without external interference. Kant argues that freedom is an inherent right of humanity, but it should be constrained by moral principles to ensure harmony between individual and collective freedoms.

   

  2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

  In traditional Chinese society, "Ritual" is not just a ceremony but a moral guideline sustaining social order. By regulating behavior, "Ritual" encourages individuals to prioritize societal interests, contributing to social harmony. Its role in the economic and political structure lies in establishing a set of relatively fixed social norms and moral standards, aiding in stabilizing governance and societal relations.

   

   3. Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

  The distinction between maritime and continental countries is based on geographical and economic factors. Maritime countries, surrounded by seas, often have economies influenced by maritime activities like trade, fishing, and navigation, while continental countries, located inland, focus more on agriculture.

  4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

  The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture spurred contemplation beyond the material world, fostering the development of metaphysics. This philosophical trend guided individuals beyond sensory experiences to seek higher truths. Simultaneously, the religious beliefs in the Hellenistic tradition laid the foundation for monotheism, concentrating faith in a single deity and emphasizing the universe's order and unity.

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  8班龚红羽 • 12-31

  I don't agree with the opinion that Confucius' Li is in line with inhumanity. 

   

  On the one hand, we need to figure out the multiple meanings of "Li". "Li" can not only be understood as "ceremony" or "etiquette", but also be defined as "sincerity", which means a "unification" of our behaviour and heart. Therefore, the "essence" of Li lies not in the "form", but in our "heart". To understand Li better, we can not merely stay on the forms of those ceremonies, but more importantly, we should make our heart and feelings conform to the requirements of "Li".

   

  On the other hand, we need to clear up some misconceptions about the word, "freedom".

  Actually, "freedom" is based on order and rules. Because without those constraints, people can do whatever they want, then the world will fall into chaos, not to mention the "freedom" of individuals. So, the order of society precedes the freedom of individuals. Only under the rules of Li can we have a harmonious and stable society, and only then can we have true freedom and humanity.

   

  All in all, Confucius' "Li", which highlights the "people-oriented" ideology, doesn't mean to hide the nature of "humanity", but serves as a natural expression of human emotions.

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  17班祁文慧 • 12-31

  We can't draw such a conclusion. Actually, Li doesn't conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. 

  Society needs order. China is a continental country, also called family sate, in which the family is the foundation of the country.Therefore, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic. In ancient China, Confucianism was used to bind people's behavior, whereas in the West, law was used to bind people's behavior. We cannot regard the force of law as inhumanity, and thus we cannot regard Li as inhumanity.

   

  The heart of ritual is the human, and even if it is true that Li is used to organize and structure society and personal behavior, it is still human-based ritual. Confucius placed significant emphasis on empathy and the recognition of others' emotions, thereby acknowledging the importance of emotional instincts and the free expression of feelings. What's more, Li seeks to establish a balance between personal desires and societal well-being, encouraging individuals to act virtuously. 

   

  Therefore, Bertrand Russel's conclusion isn't proper.

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  17班秦洁 • 12-31

      1.According to Kant's concept of justice, freedom means to act freely, also means to act autonomously, and to act according to a law I give myself. Heteronomy is the oppsitite of autonomy. It means to act according to desires I haven't chosen myself. Kant believes that human free will is not interfered by any external factors and is the untouchable core that exists deep inside human heart. The essence of freedom is the ability of human beings themselves, not the rights given by others or governments. Therefore, Kant believes that any restriction of freedom is contrary to human nature and immoral.

      2.Because the Chinese social system can be called the family system, in which fathers are naturally higher in rank than sons, and social organization is automatic and hierarchical.

  In the Spring and Autumn Period, Confucius inherited and developed the ancient concept of "rites" and creatively established a set of Confucian ideological system with "rites" as the core value. In the Confucian ideological system, "Li" not only includes the etiquette or rules in daily life, but also includes the systems and norms in various fields of Chinese ancient social life, and even includes the ideological concepts or moral rationality that are compatible with these systems and norms.

  Therefore, "rites" is not only a social and political ideal, but also a moral norm. It maintains social stability and development by guiding, restricting and standardizing people's thought and behavior. In ancient China, the developed degree of "Li" and its role in the whole national spirit and social politics have unique and great cultural significance.

  3. First of all, he Greeks lived in a maritime country, and they were mainly merchants who, by using numbers, used concrete things to illustrate one another. From this, they developed mathematics and mathematical reasoning. Therefore, they will epistemological questions, and their language is clear.

  Based on their excellent reasoning and critical thinking abilities, the Greeks explored God, the soul, and freedom of will from a rational point of view. As the ancient Greek philosopher Plato said, the true concept of justice must be discovered through rational speculation.

  In addition, the Greek city-states were numerous, with different political and economic forms, and their religious origins were extremely extensive. So in the beginning, ancient Greece and Rome were actually polytheistic states.

  But with the war and political turmoil, as well as the development of productive forces, polytheism has been unable to meet the spiritual needs of people. Coupled with the decline of the state, polytheism, as a product of sensibility, is unable to give people a clear guide to life.

  But in Christianity, God is the supreme being, and his Son Jesus was sent into the world to bear all kinds of suffering for people. The great God assuages the fear of the unknown and is thus believed by the believers. 

  4. Confucianism is a civilized code of conduct. It has prescribed the moral etiquette and behavioral norms of people in society. Confucianism requires individuals to abide by etiquette in their daily lives, pay attention to moral cultivation, and consciously restrain their desires; It also emphasizes that individual behavior should conform to social behavior norms, and requires individuals to have a certain sense of responsibility and obligation in society. Confucianism has an important position and influence in Chinese history, and plays an important role in the development of social civilization and the maintenance of social order.

  But Confucianism also has certain limitations, which limit people's emotional instincts and spiritual freedom. However, Confucianism is not inhumane, on the contrary, Confucianism pays more attention to the good side of human nature and the restraint of bad human nature. What needs to be done in today's society is to revise and improve Confucianism while inheriting and carrying forward Confucianism to meet the needs of modern society.

   

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  8班郭雯 • 12-31

  1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）

  According to Kant, true freedom is considered to mean that man has the free will to act according to his own legislation without being bound by the law of nature in the sense of moral real money, and that man's reason establishes the inevitable laws of nature in the aspect of objects, but therefore limits his own freedom. In real money, the same reason of man is able not to be bound by the laws of nature, but to act according to its own consistent universal law of free will.

   

  2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

  Ritual play a crucial role in traditional Chinese law. Rites are the spiritual core of law, and they cannot be separated. Under the same goal of maintaining feudal autocratic rule, they play their respective roles and complement each other. As a symbol of Chinese traditional culture, ritual has been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of Chinese people, and has gained universal recognition. Its status and function even transcend the law and become the supreme existence.

  "Ritual" is actually a code of conduct generated by the interaction between people, or a social rule. The system itself, which is reached voluntarily and observed voluntarily through the interaction between people, is said to be efficient by institutional economics. Why is that? It's simple: an agreed result is a good result.

   

  3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

  1, Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country.

  2, continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries.

   

  4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

  From the historical process of metaphysics development, there are actually three kinds of metaphysics: universal ontology, category ontology and meaning ontology. Greek philosophy originated from the search for "the universality of the world" (the original).

   

  5. Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?

  No, we cannot conclude that Confucius is consistent with inhumanity simply because rites or rituals conflict with human emotional instincts and the spirit of freedom. While Confucius did emphasize the importance of etiquette and social structure, this was not at the expense of humanity or free will.

  Confucius believed rites were important in promoting social harmony and respect for others, but also emphasized the importance of compassion, empathy, and personal expression.

  In addition, Russell's evaluation of Confucian inhumanity is narrow and limited. Confucianism and philosophy have evolved over time, and there is no single, unitary interpretation of Confucianism.

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  2021级1班石荟铃 • 12-31

  Confucius said, “at seventy I could follow the dictates of my own heart without transgressing the norm.” I think what Confucius conveys is that freedom does not equal to no restrictions, no rules, thus you can do anything you want. there are still boundaries. But at his seventies, he no longer has to deliberately follow the rules, his actions do not require intentional guidance, and everything he does is naturally correct, and does not go beyond the rules.

  Feng Youlan once put forward the theory: The spheres of living. He classified the various spheres of living into 4 general grades. Beginning with the lowest, they are the innocent sphere, the utilitarian sphere, the moral sphere, and the transcendent sphere.

  The innocent sphere: A man simply do what his instinct or the custom of his society leads him to do.

  The utilitarian sphere: everything a man does has the significance of utility for himself

  The moral sphere: the man does everything for the benefit of the society.

  The transcendent sphere: the man does everything for the benefit of the universe.

  That is, he understands the significance of what he does and is self-conscious of the fact that he is doing what he does.

  The fourth sphere of living perfectly corresponds with the freedom that Confucius approves. In fact, as our lecturer has taught us in the previous lesson, the very first meaning of Li is to respect the cosmological order, which is in accordance with the transcendent sphere of living as well.

  Freedom itself is a rather vague concept. We all agree that there is not such a thing as absolute freedom. In the modern society, we still live under moral and legal constraints, but we cannot say that the existence of these constraints is inhumane. Without them, our human society will become a chaotic mess. Li is not to suppress our humanity. In this sense, it is related to the second meaning of Li, about the social order. It is more like a code to regulate people’s behavior, to consolidate the hierarchy at that time, in order to make the country a stable state.

  The practice of Li can shape us, and help us preserve the good human instincts, and thus we can achieve the “proper” freedom as Confucius promotes: “at seventy I could follow the dictates of my own heart without transgressing the norm.”

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  陈欣 • 12-31

  1. What is freedom?

  Immanuel Kant, an 18th-century German philosopher, presented a distinctive perspective on freedom in his works, notably in his "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals" and "Critique of Practical Reason." For Kant, freedom is a central concept in moral philosophy, closely tied to his moral framework.

  Kant distinguishes between two types of freedom: empirical freedom and transcendental freedom. Empirical freedom refers to the ability to act according to our desires and inclinations, a freedom that is constrained by external factors. In contrast, transcendental freedom is the freedom of the rational will to act independently of empirical influences. It is this transcendental freedom that holds paramount significance for Kant in the realm of morality.

  According to Kant, moral actions are guided by the categorical imperative, a universal moral law that individuals must will as a principle applicable to all rational beings. Transcendental freedom is essential for individuals to follow the moral law, as it allows them to act autonomously, in accordance with rational principles, rather than being driven solely by desires and inclinations.

  Kant emphasizes that true moral freedom involves acting in conformity with the moral law, which is determined by reason. He rejects a conception of freedom based on arbitrary choices or the pursuit of personal desires, arguing that such actions lack moral worth. Instead, he posits that genuine freedom lies in the rational commitment to universal moral principles, transcending subjective inclinations.

  In summary, Kant's view of freedom centers on transcendental freedom, the capacity of the rational will to act autonomously in accordance with universal moral principles. This perspective underscores the significance of moral duty and rational deliberation in achieving genuine freedom, as opposed to mere empirical freedom driven by personal desires.

  1. Why does the social-economical structure of traditional Chinese society need “Li”?

  In traditional Chinese society, the concept of "Li" (礼) or ritual played a fundamental role in shaping its social and economic structure. "Li" encompasses a set of rituals, customs, and propriety governing various aspects of life, including social interactions, relationships, ceremonies, and conduct. The significance of "Li" within this societal framework can be understood through several key aspects of its influence on the social-economic structure.

  ①Hierarchical Structure: Traditional Chinese society was deeply rooted in a hierarchical structure, with clear distinctions between different social classes, such as scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. "Li" served as a guiding principle that emphasized respect for hierarchy and defined appropriate behavior for individuals based on their social status. It established codes of conduct for interactions between different classes, reinforcing the stability of the societal structure.

  ②Maintaining Social Order: "Li" acted as a tool for maintaining social harmony and order. It delineated the expected behaviors and rituals for various social occasions, ensuring that individuals adhered to societal norms and avoided actions that might disrupt the established order. Through rituals and ceremonies, "Li" provided a sense of predictability and stability, fostering social cohesion and cooperation among different societal segments.

  ③Economic Exchange and Relations: Within the economic realm, "Li" influenced business interactions, trade practices, and economic transactions. Rituals governed commercial dealings, emphasizing trust, fairness, and ethical conduct in business. Establishing and maintaining relationships through proper etiquette and ritualistic exchanges were crucial in building successful economic partnerships and trade networks.

  ④Confucian Values: Confucianism, a dominant philosophical and ethical system in traditional Chinese society, placed significant emphasis on "Li" as one of its core values. Confucian teachings stressed the importance of proper conduct, filial piety, and respect for social roles. Adherence to "Li" was seen as a manifestation of moral virtue and contributed to the cultivation of an orderly and morally upright society.

  ⑤ Symbolic Significance: "Li" carried symbolic importance beyond its practical applications. Rituals and ceremonies were not merely formalities but embodied cultural values, traditions, and collective identity. They reinforced a sense of belonging and shared heritage among members of society, contributing to a cohesive social fabric.

  1. Why did the Hebrew tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism

  The intersection of Hebrew tradition with Western culture played a pivotal role in shaping metaphysics and monotheism. To understand this confluence, one must delve into the historical, philosophical, and religious contexts that laid the foundation for these intellectual developments.

  Hebrew tradition, primarily encapsulated in the Old Testament of the Bible, introduced unique theological concepts that significantly influenced the trajectory of Western thought. The Hebrews' belief in a single, transcendent God marked a departure from the polytheistic norms of neighboring cultures. This monotheistic conception, epitomized by the Hebrew deity Yahweh, laid the groundwork for a profound shift in metaphysical thinking.

  Metaphysics, as a branch of philosophy concerned with the fundamental nature of reality, owes much to Hebrew thought. The Hebrews' emphasis on an omnipotent, omnipresent God prompted contemplation on the nature of existence, causality, and the relationship between the divine and the material world. The Hebrew scriptures, with their narratives of creation and divine intervention, sparked philosophical inquiries into the ultimate nature of reality and the existence of a divine order governing the cosmos.

  Moreover, the Hebrew tradition contributed to the development of ethical monotheism, intertwining moral principles with the concept of a singular, all-powerful God. The moral imperatives laid out in Hebrew scriptures became foundational for Western ethical philosophy, influencing subsequent thinkers like Aristotle, Aquinas, and Kant. The idea of a morally authoritative God introduced a transcendent source for ethical norms, transcending human subjectivity and relativism.

  The Hebrew emphasis on a covenantal relationship between God and humanity further influenced metaphysical speculation. The notion of a divine covenant introduced questions about the nature of divine-human interaction, free will, and the purpose of human existence. These inquiries became central to metaphysical discourse, fueling debates on determinism, teleology, and the nature of human agency.

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  16班王梦琦 • 12-31

  It would be wrong to draw this conclusion. According to Kant, freedom is the opposite of necessity.All about acting according to the laws given by oneself and choosing one's own ends. Unlimited freedom leads to chaos in the social order. Etiquette is a laissez-faire check on people, constituting upper and lower classes and left and right courtesy. Etiquette is the moral code of all members of society, as well as the standard of conduct and principle of activity of all members of society. The function of the ritual is to facilitate and coordinate. In the social governance system, etiquette needs to improve personal moral cultivation and realize self-worth, and it also needs to achieve harmony in all aspects of society. Individual freedom can only be achieved in a harmonious and orderly society, so rituals are very humane.

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