No, it would be incorrect to conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Confucius' teachings emphasize the importance of proper conduct, social harmony, and the cultivation of virtues such as benevolence, righteousness, and respect for others. Li, in Confucianism, refers to the norms and rituals that serve as guidelines for individuals to express these virtues and maintain social order. Confucius believed that cultivating these virtues and following proper conduct would lead to a harmonious society and personal well-being. However, he also recognized the importance of balancing rules and rituals with spontaneous expression and individual creativity. Therefore, while Confucianism places importance on social and personal structure, it does not advocate for inhumanity or suppression of individual emotions and free spirit.
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On the "limitation" of Li
•Some people believe Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Then, can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?
•Post your answers online.
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1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）
The core concept of Kant's moral philosophy is freedom. In Kant's view, people not only belong to the "feeling" or "phenomenal" world, but also belong to the "conceptual" or "ontology" world. As part of the world of empirical phenomena, man is determined and unfree, and his will and behavior are subject to the causal law of the natural world. As part of the rational ontology world, man is a free and moral driving force. He is free and self-determined to choose between good and evil. Kant believes that the general principles of law and morality cannot be based on empirical human nature, but must be incorporated into the "conceptual" or "ontological" world, and built on a priori "should" world based on rational commands.
2.Why did the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society need Li?
（1）Political structure: China was a family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son. (p24) That is to say, Chinese political structure needed Li to maintain the traditional family relationships and the power of the ruling class.
（2）Economic structure: In China, there was no desire for change, and also Chinese people didn’t conceive any change. So, China failed to have an industrial revolution. (p24&25) And also, China is a continental country which focuses more on agriculture. That is to say, China needed Li to keep its society stable.
3. Maritime Countries and Continental Countries
The difference between maritime and continental countries is based on geographical and economic factors. The economies of maritime countries surrounded by the sea are often influenced by maritime activities such as trade, fishing, and navigation, while landlocked continental countries place greater emphasis on agriculture.
4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture provided the intellectual, cultural, and religious context that gave rise to metaphysical inquiry and the development of monotheistic beliefs, laying the foundation for the evolution of Western philosophical and theological thought.
5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?
No, we cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity as suggested by Bertrand Russel based solely on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. While it is true that Confucius emphasized the importance of Li and social structure, this was not at the expense of humanity or free will.
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1. What is “Freedom”? (on Kant’s idea of Justice)
Kant’s concept of justice centers around the idea of treating individuals as ends in themselves and not merely as means to an end. In this context, justice is about respecting and upholding individual rights, including the right to freedom. This means that individuals should be able to exercise their freedom as long as it does not infringe on the equal freedom of others.
2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
Social Order and Stability: Rituals provided a framework for maintaining social order and harmony within the community.
Legitimizing Authority: Rituals were used to legitimize the authority of rulers and government officials.
Moral and Ethical Guidance: Rituals were deeply intertwined with Confucian ethics, emphasizing virtues such as filial piety, respect for elders, and social responsibility.
3. Maritime Countries and Continental Countries
（1）Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country.
（2） continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries.
4. Was Confucius in line with inhumanity?
The answer is obviously no. In my opinion, Li is the outward expression and real revelation of “sincere” emotion. Only when people have the “respectful” emotion and attitude from the heart, will they express such emotion as “Li”; Compared with the form of Li, Confucius paid more attention to the emotional characteristics of “qi” and expanded the emotional sensibility of Li.
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1.freedom is a central concept tied to his moral and political philosophy and it is closely linked to his concept of autonomy and moral agency. justice is closely connected to the idea of respecting the freedom and autonomy of individuals. This means that in a just society, individuals should be treated as free and equal moral agents, with their rights and dignity respected. This also implies that individuals should be held accountable for their actions, as their exercise of freedom should be guided by rational and moral principles.
2.the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society required the observance of courtesy because it contributed to social cohesion, political governance, ethical conduct, and the stability of economic relationships. Courtesy, as a central aspect of Confucian values, played a multifaceted role in shaping the norms and behaviors that sustained the traditional Chinese social, political, and economic order.
3.Greek traditions in Western culture have a profound impact on the birth of metaphysics and monotheism. Traditional Greek philosophy and religious ideas have provided an important foundation for the development of metaphysics and monotheism. For example, the development of philosophical ideas, the evolution of religion and the thinking of abstract concepts.Greek traditions in Western culture have a profound impact on the birth of metaphysics and monotheism. Traditional Greek philosophy and religious ideas have provided an important foundation for the development of metaphysics and monotheism. For example, the development of philosophical ideas, the evolution of religion and the thinking of abstract concept.
Confucius' teachings were aimed at establishing a harmonious and stable society through ethical and moral principles. While Confucianism does emphasize social structure and ritual propriety, it also places significant value on benevolence and empathy. Confucius stressed the importance of cultivating personal virtues and ethical behavior, which includes compassion, kindness, and understanding towards others.
The emphasis on rituals and social structure in Confucianism can be seen as a way to organize society and guide personal behavior, but it is not meant to conflict with human emotional instinct or free spirit. Instead, it seeks to provide a framework for individuals to cultivate virtuous behavior and contribute to a harmonious society.
Therefore, it would be inaccurate to conclude that Confucianism is inherently in line with inhumanity.
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No, it's not accurate to conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based solely on the perspective that rituals and Li conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Confucius emphasized ethical behavior and social harmony, aiming to cultivate virtues in individuals and create a stable society. While some may view it as restrictive, others see it as a framework for moral development and societal order. Interpretations of Confucianism vary, and it's important to consider diverse perspectives on its principles.
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Absolutely, I'd be happy to discuss those points briefly with specific examples and relevant philosophical insights.
1. What is Freedom (Kant's idea of justice)
Freedom, according to Kant, pertains to the autonomy of rational agents. Kant believed that true freedom emerges from individuals' ability to act according to moral principles derived from reason, not by external influences. He argued that freedom is grounded in the ability to adhere to universal moral laws. For instance, in his work "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals," Kant emphasizes that individuals are free when they act in accordance with the categorical imperative, a principle of universal moral duty.2. Why did the political-economic structure of traditional Chinese society require "Li" (Maritime Countries and Continental Countries)
In traditional Chinese society, "Li" refers to rites or rituals governing social conduct. Confucius emphasized the significance of "Li" in maintaining social harmony and order. The hierarchical structure in Chinese society relied on these rituals to regulate behavior and relationships. For instance, in "The Analects," Confucius outlines the importance of proper conduct and rituals to establish social order, reflecting the need for "Li" in maintaining stability in society.3. Why did the Hellenic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism
The Hellenic tradition, rooted in ancient Greek philosophy, sought to understand the fundamental nature of reality. This pursuit of truth and essence laid the groundwork for metaphysics. Philosophers like Plato delved into the concept of Forms, positing an ultimate reality beyond the physical world. Regarding monotheism, the notion of a single, supreme deity found roots in Aristotle's concept of the "Unmoved Mover" or the Prime Mover, which influenced later theological and monotheistic developments in Western thought. -
It would be inaccurate to draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based solely on the interpretation of Li or rituals as conflicting with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Confucius' teachings encompassed a broad range of topics, including ethics, morality, social relationships, and governance. While he did emphasize the importance of rituals (Li) in structuring social behaviors, his teachings also emphasized empathy, benevolence, and the cultivation of virtues such as compassion, righteousness, and filial piety.
Confucius sought to promote harmony and ethical conduct within society, and his emphasis on rituals was intended to foster a sense of propriety, respect, and order. Rather than advocating for inhumanity, Confucius aimed to cultivate a harmonious and morally upright society through the practice of rituals and the cultivation of virtuous behavior.
Therefore, it is essential to consider Confucius' teachings in their entirety and within the context of his broader philosophy before drawing conclusions about his alignment with inhumanity. His teachings encompassed a comprehensive ethical and moral framework that extended beyond the mere practice of rituals, and they continue to be subject to diverse interpretations and discussions among scholars and practitioners.
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Human nature is beautiful and good but not pure and pure, which is Confucius's view of human nature. On this basis, Confucius established both the autonomous status of benevolence and the normative authority of etiquette. Because human nature has goodness, "benevolence depends on oneself, but not on others" ("Yan Yuan"); "How far is benevolence? I want to be benevolent, and this is the most benevolent thing" ("Shu Er"). Because human nature is not pure and beautiful, it is necessary to "learn etiquette" and "know etiquette", "restraining oneself and restoring etiquette is benevolence", "if you don't learn etiquette, you can't stand up". There is no doubt that if beauty and good nature but not pure beauty and pure fruit are Confucius’ view of human nature, then in the process of human cultivation, freedom and self-discipline from the inside and freedom and heteronomy from the outside should complement each other. , the relationship of dialectical unity, there is no logical contradiction or incompleteness in it.
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1.What is free？
In Kant's view, freedom is subjecting your desires to your rationality. Freedom is self-discipline. This kind of self-discipline is not forced to take care of oneself under the influence of others or external factors. Self discipline is the process of setting rules for oneself based on one's own rationality and strictly following these rules, which is self control.
2.Why did the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society need Li?
Traditional Chinese society has a strict economic system and political class hierarchy. Once these institutional rules are violated, legal sanctions will be imposed. "Li" is to guide people, regulate and educate their behavior and thoughts before they violate the system. Under the joint action of "Li" and law, society can develop in a stable and orderly manner.
3.Why did the Greek and Roman tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism?
The ancient Greeks attached great importance to political democracy and freedom of thought, believed in the value and dignity of the human person, and did not submit to any secular or religious authority. With the attitude of rationalism and secularism, adhering to the spirit of free exploration, positive thinking and continuous innovation, they brought to the Western world the humanistic thought of freedom, rationality and democracy, optimistic and enterprising attitude towards life, and healthy and simple aesthetic concept.
4.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity？
No, the conclusion that Confucius is inhumane is incorrect. Fundamentally speaking, Western civilization and Chinese civilization were born in different environments, which led to different social structures. Western civilization originated from the ocean and flourished through commerce. So, their social organization is built on the common interests of families and towns. In urban countries, social organization is not automatic, as everyone in the same class of citizens is equal. The reason why China's social system is called the family state is because under it, the state is conceived from the perspective of the family. In a family state, social organization is automatic and hierarchical, and within a family, the authority of the father is naturally higher than that of the son.
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I maintain that Confucius is not in line with inhumanity as it actually function as the most rightful and suitable mechanism for traditional Chinese society.
First, Li does not conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. How should we define freedom? Kant conceives freedom as autonomy, that is to act according to a law one gives to himself or herself. That happens when people live as animals, but in a human society, that is not the case. That is why Kant raised the concept of heteronomy, a vision seemingly to be the opposite side of freedom, which means to act according to desires one haven't chosen himself or herself. And that is what human society requires to achieve a well-organized and disciplined harmony.
Second, Li is a necessity in the economic and social structure of traditional Chinese society since that the Chinese social system may be called that of the family state because under it the state is conceived of in ters of the family. In a city state the social organization is not automatic, because among the same class of townsmen, there is no moral reason why one should be more important than, or superior to, another. But in a family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son. While hierarchy is embedded in the concept of Li, that requires Li serve as the supporting pillar of the traditional Chinese society.
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1.Freedom is the opposite of necessity. To act freely is to act autonomously, and to act autonomously is to act according to a law that I give myself, not according to the physical laws of nature, or to the laws of cause and effect, which include my desire to eat or to drink or to choose this food and restaurant over that. So freedom as autonomy is an especially stringent idea that Kant insists on.
2.In Chinese social system, which may be called that of family state because under it the state is conceived of in terms of the family. In a family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of son. "Ritual" is not only a social and political ideal, but also a moral norm. It maintains social stability and development by guiding, restricting and standardizing people's thought and behavior.
3.The Helo era was the world of Greek culture and Roman politics, as well as the background and environment for the development of Christian faith. Christianity generally holds that God is Triune: Christianity as monotheism is characterized by the Christian God being a "triune" God. This cultural form has formed its own unique theological theory construction and philosophical thinking method. After death, the soul enters hell, accepts the judgment of the behavior before death, and further proves the existence of the other world with strict logic, effectively transforming people's imagination into a strict argument behind the world, and thus provoking them to think more deeply about the unshakable fate behind the world that determines everything, the nature of the world. The "philosophy" of exploring the nature of the world came into being in this way, and the natural philosophy of looking at the world from the perspective of matter was born, and the metaphysics of looking through the surface of matter to find the hidden essence behind it.
4.We cannot draw such a conclusion. Because human beings can never exist independently from society, because sociality is one of the three inseparable attributes of human beings (naturalness, biology, and sociality), a person who loses any of these attributes cannot become a person. Man is born free because he has natural attributes, and constrained because he has biological and social attributes. These three essential attributes determine that human freedom has limits. Its boundary is that the greatest freedom of man is not to interfere with the freedom of others and to live in harmony with nature. We may also call this boundary of freedom the natural constraint of freedom. Thus, a seemingly contradictory social phenomenon appears. People because of the desire for dignity and have to give a part of dignity to the society, so there is a gift. Observance of etiquette, everyone knows the boundaries of their power, everyone is in place, such a society is harmonious and orderly. Therefore, ritual is a kind of freedom, but also a kind of freedom with boundaries. In fact, freedom has always had boundaries, and there is no absolute freedom, and a free life has always been a happy dance within the bounds of order.
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No, we can't. Human beings are rational and autonomous beings, which set us from and above mere animal existence. And human's freedom is also not merely equal to doing and getting what we want like animals. Li and rituals are the moral laws we give ourselves. They are the right principles to ensure us to do the right things. In other words, they are supposed to be one's inmost instict, which should be classifed into human's emotional instict and spirit, too. Therefore, Li and rituals definitely do not conflict with humanity, Confucius either.
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I don't agree with the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanityFirst of all, in Kant's view, freedom is that human beings can decide their own actions according to their rational and moral abilities. It is not unrestrained, but free choice according to moral laws and regulations under the guidance of rationality.In the ancient Chinese national governance model, Li and rituals were closely combined and had the function of regulating and restraining the social . Since the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Li has become the mainstream of society. Until today, Li still has an important impact on society.So the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity isn‘t right.Freedom does not mean doing anything at will. Freedom is to decide your own behaviour with reason and be responsible for yourself, which means that freedom will not cause harm to society. To be precise, Confucius' theory does not limit freedom. On the contrary, Li can be called another form of rationality. No matter who lives in society, we must abide by the rules of society. Li aims to regulate our behaviour, not to harm to the human emotions.
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1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）
Kant's idea of justice and freedom is deeply rooted in his moral and political philosophy. According to Immanuel Kant, freedom is a central concept in the realm of ethics and justice. For Kant, freedom is not merely the absence of external constraints but is closely tied to the concept of autonomy. A just society, according to Kant, is one in which individuals are treated with respect for their rationality and moral agency, and where laws are derived from a collective rational will that upholds the principles of freedom and autonomy.
2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
In the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society, "rites" is a core concept, which plays an important role in social stability and order.
Maintain social order: "Rites" as a social norm and code of conduct, help to maintain social order.
Emphasis on social hierarchy and order: Traditional Chinese society emphasizes social hierarchy and order, and "li" is used to establish and maintain the relationship between different social classes in this context.
Building interpersonal relationships: Etiquette is also regarded as a means to establish and maintain good interpersonal relationships in traditional Chinese society.
Passing on values: Through "rites", Chinese traditional society has passed on certain values, such as filial piety, loyalty, benevolence, etc.
3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries
The distinction between marine and continental countries is mainly based on their geographical, resource, and economic characteristics.
4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
Traditions in Western culture have formed an emphasis on metaphysics and monotheism, which are closely related to the complex context of historical, philosophical, and religious development.
The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy: Ancient Greek philosophers, especially Plato and Aristotle, had a profound influence on the development of Western philosophy and metaphysics. Plato emphasized the Idea of transcending perceptual experience, and proposed the concept of "idea", which holds that the true reality exists in ideas rather than concrete things. This laid the foundation for later metaphysics.
Judeo-christian Tradition: The Judeo-Christian tradition has played an important role in Western culture. Judaism and Christianity emphasize a unique and supreme God, which laid the foundation for the formation of Western monotheism. The shaping of moral, ethical, and religious beliefs by the Bible in the Judeo-Christian tradition has had a profound impact on Western culture.
The pursuit of the supernatural: Metaphysics emphasizes contemplation of the supernatural realm and attempts to answer fundamental questions that transcend experience, such as existence, essence, and purpose. This focus on the supernatural led to the development of metaphysics as a branch of philosophy dealing with abstract and transcendental problems.
These elements are interwoven to form the unique face of Western philosophy and religion.
5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?
No. Confucius’ teachings were deeply concerned with promoting ethical behavior, social harmony, and moral development, all of which are closely related to the concept of humanity.
Confucius believed that cultivating ren (humanity) was essential for individuals and society to flourish. Ren encompasses qualities such as benevolence, compassion, kindness, empathy, and the ability to relate to others with understanding and goodwill. It involves treating others with respect, kindness, and empathy, and striving to create harmonious relationships within society.
Confucius emphasized the importance of practicing humanity in various aspects of life, including family, governance, education, and interpersonal relationships. He advocated for individuals to cultivate their moral character, showing compassion and empathy towards others, and fulfilling their social roles and responsibilities.
Therefore, it can be concluded that Confucius's teachings align with the concept of humanity. His emphasis on moral cultivation, ethical behavior, harmonious social relationships, and the importance of benevolence and compassion reflects a strong commitment to the values associated with humanity. Confucius envisioned a society where individuals exhibit humane behavior and contribute to the betterment of the community through their ethical actions.
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1.What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）
Kant holds that freedom consists in acting according to the law given by individuals not by the external or physical laws of nature. Freedom can only be gained when we act autonomously, on the laws given by ourselves. Thus we do something for its own sake as an end itself. Take the charity programme for example. If you give out your hand to people in need with sincere kindness, then you good motive is just the end. On the contrary, some people utilize the charity as a gimmick to grab public eyeballs, those needy people are used as means to achieve your end.
That means, if we simply act on inclination or pursue pleasure, we can’t have the true freedom. In that way, we act as means to the realization of ends given outside us. This reminds me of a trendy word the pitfall of consumerism. In Kant’s context, consumers who are blindly driven by advertisements to pursue the pleasure are just the means of merchants to gain the lucrative money. Therefore, these people actually lost their freedom
2.Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
From the perspective of geographical factors, China is no doubt a continental country, where people could simply make a living on the produce of their land, lacking the desire to exchange commodity, resulting in a slow growth of commerce. And rulers adhere to the principal of containing commerce and developing agriculture in order to sustain his governance. All adds up to the rituals to maintain a stable, consistent, hierarchical society. Therefore, we need ritual to keep the giant country operating.
3.Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
The ancient Greeks strongly focused on political democracy and freedom of thought, firmly believed in human values and dignity, and did not succumb to any secular or religious authority. With the attitude of rationalism and secularism and adhering to the spirit of free exploration, positive thinking and continuous innovation, they have brought free, rational and democratic humanistic ideas, giving rise to metaphysics.
Before monotheism, we must talk about polytheism. It often corresponds to secular power based on tribal alliance and city-state alliance. This power system is relatively loose, and there are characteristics of replacement and mutual checks and balances. The most typical examples are Viking nations and Greek city-states in Northern Europe, and the corresponding polytheism is Norse mythology and Greek mythology respectively.
After Rome replaced Greece, this kind of loose power system continued. Different forces could check and balance each other and take over at any time. When there was a balance of power, they would sit down and negotiate, and when one side gained an absolute advantage, they would directly fight each other with swords. With the gradual improvement of the Roman administrative system and the concentration of secular power, the secular power system supporting polytheism gradually began to disintegrate. The Roman Emperor represented by Constantine I was no longer satisfied with the dispersion of power and the uncertainty of inheritance, so he replaced the polytheistic belief of the ancient Roman religion with improved Christianity under the cover of monotheistic Judaism.
4.We cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. On the contrary, he lay emphasis on limited freedom is true freedom which is in keeping with Kant’s opinions. Only within a given ritual set by morality or laws can people act autonomously.
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1. What is "Freedom"?
Kant's idea of justice is based on the concept of freedom, which he defined as the ability to act at his own will, free from external coercion or interference. In this sense, freedom is the basis of justice, because it allows individuals to make their own choices and to be responsible for their own actions.
2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
Rituals play a vital role in traditional Chinese law. And they are the spiritual core of the law and cannot be separated. Under the same goal of maintaining feudal autocracy, they played their respective roles and complemented each other. As a symbol of traditional Chinese culture, religious ceremonies have been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of the Chinese people and have been widely recognized. Its status and function even transcend the law and become the supreme being.
"Ritual is a code of conduct, or a social rule, that results from the interaction between people. Institutions themselves are voluntarily reached and observed through human interactions, and are considered effective by institutional economics. Why is this happening? It's simple: a consistent result is a good result.
3.Why did the Greek and Roman tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism?
The ancient Greeks had a strong focus on political democracy and freedom of thought, firmly believed in the values and dignity of human beings, and did not submit to any secular or religious authority. With a rationalist and secularist attitude, they adhered to the spirit of free exploration, positive thinking, and continuous innovation, and brought to the Western world a free, rational, and democratic humanistic thought, an optimistic and enterprising attitude towards life, and a healthy and simple aesthetic concept.
No, we can’t draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity as suggested by Bertrand Russel which is based on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Although Confucius emphasized the importance of Li and social structure, this was not at the expense of humanity or free will.
Confucius believed li was important in promoting social harmony and respect for others and emphasized the importance of compassion, empathy, and personal expression, which stated that one must first develop oneself before being able to properly engage with society and Li. Russell’s evaluation of Confucian inhumanity is narrow and limited. Confucian thought and philosophy have evolved over time, and there is no singular, monolithic interpretation of Confucianism. Hence, it is important to approach Confucianism and its concepts of Li and humanity with an open mind, rather than making sweeping conclusions based on limited perspectives.
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No, we can‘t draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Some people think that Li is to organize the construction of society and individual behavior, so some people think that Li does not pay attention to human nature, and goes against human feelings.
In fact, society is a whole, and society needs Li. Li play a role in guiding, tempering, regulating and stabilizing all aspects of social life, so that everyone knows that "with rules, there is a radius; There is a scale, there is a limit; With the bottom line, there is dignity in the value scale of life, the sense of crisis that we should think twice before doing things, restrict People's Daily behavior norms, facilitate the management of the social system, facilitate the mobilization of the social collective, and make the ruling national law and the folk rules and conventions or "family law" have theoretical guiding significance.
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1.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity?
No, I don’t think so.
Confucianism actually emphasizes the cultivation of virtuous qualities such as benevolence, righteousness, and filial piety, which are believed to lead to harmonious personal and social relationships. Confucius stressed the importance of observing and practicing rituals, hoping to create order and stability within society. He believed that by adhering to rituals and social norms, individuals could create a harmonious environment where people could develop morally and ethically.
As a Western philosopher, Russell may put more emphasis on individual freedom and self-expression, which could lead him to view Confucian principles as restricting personal liberty.However, it is important to consider the cultural context in which Confucius lived and his teachings were developed. Confucianism was deeply rooted in Chinese society, and it played a vital role in elevating the individual's character and moral development, and creating a harmonious community.
Hence, Confucianism does not necessarily equate to inhumanity. Instead, it focuses on creating a balanced and moral society for the improvement of individuals and their relationships in society.
2.What is freedom? （Kant's idea of Justice）
According to Kant's idea, freedom is a ability of individuals to act according to to a law we give ourselves and to make choices autonomously, without being constrained by external forces. He referred that freedom is not merely the absence of physical or political constraints but also includes the ability to act in accordance with moral principles and universal laws. Individuals should have the freedom to pursue their own goals and interests, as long as they do not infringe on the freedom of others.
3.Why does China's traditional economic and political structure need "rituals"?
Rituals in China often have deep symbolic meanings associated with Confucianism and Taoism.For example, it emphasizes hierarchical relationships based on Confucian principles. Chinese rituals show the power dynamics among individuals across different social classes.According to rituals, people are expected to respect and understand their place in the hierarchy, reinforcing social order and stability.
Besides, Chinese rituals embody cultural values, moral principles, and ideals that reflect the harmony and order the government seeks to achieve. They play a role in reinforcing social cohesion while promoting values like filial piety, respect for authority, and harmony between individuals, society, and nature.
4.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries
The distinction between maritime countries and continental countries lies in their geographical features and reliance on marine resources. Maritime countries are typically located on coastlines and heavily depend on seas, oceans, and waterways for trade, transportation, and access to resources. On the other hand, continental countries are situated in the interior of a land, with little or indirect access to oceans. They primarily rely on land-based resources, infrastructure, and trade routes.
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Firstly, to answer this question, the knowledge of "free" should be discussed.
What is the real freedom？According to Kant, to act freely is to act autonomously instead of acting heteronomously. To act heteronomously is follow our desires, such as the desire of sleeping, of eating, of hogging and so on. Those will bind us as slaves if we bow and scrape to them. On the contrary, to act autonomously is to actccording to a law we give to ourselves. Such a law is that we have chosen or created. So this is Kant's idea of freedom, which remiands me of Freud's theory of ego, id and superego. Let me take an example briefly. I feel hungry and I want to eat something. (Such a thought is just from my ego. ) And then I see an apple lying on my roomate's table. I want to eat it. (This is from my id) But she is not here, I don't do like that. (This is from y superego) Superego follows a principle as Kant's freedom follows a law which is chosen or created by ourselves. Therefore, I think that to act freely is to shed our skin of desires, which makes us humans instead of animals.
Now let's back to Li. Generally, Li has four aspects--etiquette, social order, sincerity and appropriateness. Like leash a dog, Li leashes individual behavior, thus leashing the whole society. In other words, construction a peaceful,stable and prosperous society cannot be done without Li. Yet the leash can be seen as the principles or laws I mentioned above. So Li is not a kind of a bondage to freedom--quite the reverse that Li can help us to reach the state of superego, the freedom. So I don't agree that Confusion is in line with inhumanity.
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1)What's freedom? (according to Kant)
We often think of freedom as simply consisting in doing what we want or in the absence of obstacles to getting what we want, that's one way of thinking about freedom. But this isn't Kant's ideal of freedom. Kant has a more stringent demanding notion of what it means to be free.
Kant believes that freedom is the opposite of necessity.To act freely is to act autonomously.And to act autonomously is to act according to a law that I give to myself (not according to the physical laws of nature or the laws of cause and effect).
Freedom as autonomy is an especially stringent idea that Kant insists on.
2)Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
Ritual guides people's thoughts and demeanors. It is an important form of regulation in traditional Chinese society. Ritual system involves not only the actions and behaviors of individuals, but also the political system and the way society is organized. "The get-along way of the ruler and his subjects" in the ritual system states that the emperor is the lord of heaven and earth, while the people are his subjects. The emperor must exercise his power by the highest standards, and the people are responsible for obeying the emperor's commands. This norm stressed the power of the king and the duties of the people, making the feudal political system more stable and conducive to the continuous development of the national economy.
3)Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity?
No,we can’t.The core values of ritual are respect, humility and interaction. Li educates people to respect others, follow social norms and moral standards, thereby building a harmonious, equal and stable society. In addition, it also emphasizes modesty. People should maintain a humble attitude, learning to interact and build a good relationship with others to promote each other's growth and development.
While Confucius stresses the importance of Li and social structure, they’re not at the expense of humanity or free will, hence we should not claim that Confucius is in line with inhumanity and there’s no conflicts with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Under a harmonious society standardized by Li, people can act autonomously, which means they can act freely. -
We cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. This hasty conclusion is radically wrong or, to put it mildly, biased, in terms of the character of Confucius, the nature of Li, and the correlation between Li and emotional instinct.
First of all, the claim that Confucius is inhuman is not true in itself. Wise as he is, Confucius is a common human being in the first place, which is to say, he himself was once overwhelmed by emotions as well. For instance, he expressed his enormous sorrow over Yan yen's death, in spite of his healthy. This melancholy is a demonstration of Confucius' spontaneous outlet of feelings, meaning Confucius himself has nothing to do with "inhumanity".
Then, considering the nature of Li, what Confucius upholds is practically in line with humanity, rather than the opposite. We distinguish ourselves from the rest of animals by some unique features, among which rationality stands out. Rationality is an essential part of humanity, and in the context of ancient China, Li is mainly about rationality.
Last but not least, Li is not to suppress all the emotional instinct or free spirits. As is explained by Kant, we are born with the capacity of expressing our emotions, and are physically prone to be enslaved by emotions. Thus in order to moderate our innate strong, and sometimes even crushing emotions, so as not to put ourselves to destroy, we need certain restraints. Having said that, the necessity of refraining equals not to perishing all our emotions. The function of restraint, and also part of the purpose of Li, externally or internally, is to help maintain the overall harmony of ourselves, which is in line with the golden means.
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1.
Kant's conception of freedom is that it is determined by reason, that it excludes the influence of all perceptual factors and regards the objective law of reason as its own subjective criterion, that it realizes for itself without interference from external factors of the empirical world and according to the inevitable requirements of reason.To act freely is to act autonomously, and to act autonomously is to act according to a law I give myself ，not according to the physical laws of nature or the laws of cause and effect which include my desire to eat or to drink.
2.
Li are a kind of hierarchical order, so that the Chinese people have a hierarchical order, and the people driven by desire have norms and standards of behavior, and the society has become an orderly community. In ancient China, the state was governed by Li, which was the foundation and strategy of the state. Both the rulers and the people obeyed the norms of etiquette. Li maintains the social hierarchy order. Li is to assign duties and standards of behavior to all classes. Everyone has his own value.
3. Confucius is not in line with inhumanity.
An important basis for the generation of Li is the control of desire, desire is a natural attribute, if it is not controlled, there will be serious consequences, and eventually will lead to the opposite of desire, that is, the destruction of desire. Therefore, it is an inevitable process to set up Li on the basis of desire and thus control desire. The fundamental purpose of moderation is to better satisfy desires. This is the inevitability of Li. Li are built on the basis of emotion, which is produced in order to control the improper and inappropriate vent of emotion.
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I believe that Li and inner relationships are not independent of each other, but are interrelated and complementary. Since ancient times, Chinese people have been accustomed to group thinking, valuing "what others say" more than "what they think", and therefore are often imprisoned by outside ideas and rules. And etiquette should be internalized in the mind, a conscious self-restraint. Mencius believes that a truly polite person is not blindly pursuing the appearance of the voice and smile, but the heart is full of sincerity and respect for people. Therefore, Li and inner relationships are closely related.
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According to Kant's idea. The so-called broad freedom is that although a monad is determined to move in a specific way, the determining force comes from within the monad and can be said to be an internal cause. This indicates that the monad is not subject to external constraints and trends, so it is said to be free. Or rather, freedom is something that becomes what it is destined to become without hindrance.Narrowly defined freedom is considered to refer to a person's moral practice of being free from the constraints of natural laws, free from physical instincts, and acting according to the universal law of their own consistent free will. And “Li” play an irreplaceable role in maintaining social stability and ensuring the normal operation of society. And it also guarantees everyone'freedom in such a hamonious society. So I think Confucious' "Li" is in line with humanity.
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Kant held that every rational being had both an innate right to freedom and a duty to enter into a civil condition governed by a social contract in order to realize and preserve that freedom. Kant affirmed freedom as the fundamental right of rational agents, we must always keep in mind that he meant a “freedom” that is consistent with his Categorical Imperative, i.e., a right to freedom that can be attributed equally to every individual, a freedom that can be exercised by every person simultaneously without generating conflict. This is why force used to protect our right to freedom is morally justifiable, whereas force used to violate our right to freedom amounts to nothing more than mere “violence.” Any alleged “right” to restrict the legitimate freedom of others would inject an ineradicable conflict into rights theory and is ruled out of court for that reason alone. To forbid, by legal means, the “freedom” to violate rights is therefore “consistent with freedom according to universal laws [of justice].”
Everyone pursues desire according to their instinctive nature. If there are no certain rules to limit it, it will lead to disputes, and then there will be two results. This can only be an endless struggle, that is, that is, what Xun Zi said. "Fighting is chaos"; one is that "things cannot be provided", and there are so many things provided by nature. If there are more monks and less porridge, everyone wants to get it without effort, and there is bound to compete. Because "potentiality cannot be tolerated, and things cannot be subsidized", in this process, it is all kinds of competition, thieves, lewdness, chaos and violence. The final result is "poor", which refers to both the poverty of materials and the poverty of people. Everyone's desires cannot be satisfied, and everyone can't survive safely.
Ritual to resolve this contradiction. The contradictions of competition continue to arise, and human beings are bound to be in a state of poverty. If this continues in the long run, it will not only benefit anyone, but also make people face the danger of extinction. In this case, a mechanism to regulate the relationship between people is bound to emerge, which is ritual. The role of ritual is to regulate the relationship of desire between people so that the materials provided by nature can have a reasonable distribution, and finally achieve the goals of "uniting in the community", "in line with literature and theory" and "returning to governance".
The so-called restrain human desire is only to prevent some people's desire from excessive expansion and chaos, not the general Taoist so-called clear-mindedness and the "extermination" of later scholars. The ultimate purpose of ritual , is to nourish the desire to satisfy everyone's legitimate desires to the maximum extent. Therefore, the ritual is definitely not in line with humanity but in harmony with humanity.
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No, we can’t draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity as suggested by Russel. Kant believes that true freedom is considered to mean that in the sense of moral practice, people have the free will to act according to their own legislation without being bound by natural laws and getting rid of physical instincts. Human reason establishes the inevitable laws of nature in terms of objects, but thus limits their freedom; human reason is in practice. However, it is not bound by the laws of nature, but can act according to its own consistent universal law of free will. The main manifestation of Li is the form of orderly social structure. It stipulates the rights and obligations of all levels of society as the criterion for people to establish social relations and social exchanges. Rites are the basic means to safeguard the status and interests of the ruling class, as well as a normative system for social control. Confucius believed that Li was based on benevolence. Li should take benevolence as the fundamental starting point. Therefore, it is not right to conclude that Confucius is inhumane just because it seems to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit.
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We cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
To begin with, according to Kant’s conception of freedom, it is to act autonomously according to a law that you give yourself , instead of doing whatever you want.So organized social and individual behaviors are not in conflict with the free spirit and human emotional instinct. However, free action must take place in an orderly manner within the organization of society.
Secondly, the core content of traditional culture accumulated by thousands of years of Chinese history is "rites", and the politics of ancient China is basically based on "rites". "Rites" is closely related to ancient Chinese political ideas, political behaviors and political systems. The patriarchal system, fealty system, land system and other political systems in ancient China belong to the category of "rites". Although all kinds of ritual systems have gained or lost and changed with the development of society or the replacement of dynasties, they have always changed. "Ritual" has always been the theoretical basis and value standard of various systems in ancient society of our country for thousands of years, and has always been the ideal system pattern pursued by the ideology of feudal dynasties in our country. Therefore, it can be said that our traditional culture and political system are basically a "paradigm" of rites. Due to the characteristics of ancient Chinese economic and political structures, rituals is really needed to maintain social stability and economic development.
Thirdly, the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture spurred contemplation beyond the material world, fostering the development of metaphysics. At the time of the rise of monotheism, the society was in the stage of the disintegration of primitive society, the formation of class society, the contradictions between nobility and commoners in clan society and between slave owners and slaves after entering class society were very sharp. Therefore, the essence of metaphysics and the rise of the monotheism is to maintain the unity of society and to emphasize the universe's order and unity.
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I don’t approve that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. The reasons are as follows.
Initially, Li doesn’t conflict with freedom whereas gives acting freely a sample. According to Kant, acting freely is acting autonomously, thus a person won’t be dominated by his own desires and inclinations. And I’d like to support this idea by stating that the freedom in Western minds is to pursue the things which are guided by their wants, not their own spirit. So in this case, Li isn’t indeed in line with freedom and human instinct, and here freedom and instinct can’t distinguish between human beings and animals. If we humans can just act to conform to our desires, which is the so-called freedom, then we are no different from those animals that have no minds, because complex and special minds are unique to mankind. So acting freely is actually to act according to the law I give to myself. Then what if the law of oneself is totally different? How can we form a society? How can we get along with each other? Obviously, this concern is overblown. We are all human, so something identical is born in us. Li is the Chinese thing to which all Chinese agree, so it can guarantee that everyone acts according to the law he gives himself. And that’s why Li gives a sample to act freely.
Secondly, Li helped to stabilize Chinese traditional society and contributed to the development of Chinese culture. Since Qin Shihuang unified the six countries, China entered a feudal society, and after most of the time, China was in a state of unity. So with a family running such a big country, without good rules, how can Chinese culture survive today? It is undeniable that in order to adapt to the development of society, political and economic change, and progress, there have been some changes in the development of rites, but the role of rites has always been to maintain rule and social order. As a means, it contributes to social stability and cultural continuity. I don't think it has anything to do with inhumanity.
Shortly, Confucius is actually in line with humanity because Li indeed helps to distinguish humans from animals and contributes to cultural continuity. -
I don't agree with the opinion that Confucius' Li is in line with inhumanity.
Politically speaking, the ancient Chinese society was strictly hierarchical , and Li was equivalent to the ancient Chinese legal norms. Under this normative system, people performed their duties to ensure social stability and maintain social order, and people believed that social order could be maintained in this way. In terms of economy, unlike the maritime countries, the social economy of ancient China was not a free economy, and its economy was related to politics to some extent. Therefore, for a period of time, commerce ranked at the end of the economy, because it had the greatest freedom, it seemed that it did not abide by the norms of Li. Economic foundation determined the superstructure, so economic development also needed the maintenance of etiquette. Only in this way can the political system be further consolidated.
According to Kant's, freedom is the foundation of justice. He believed that the real freedom refers to the free will of a person to act according to his own legislation, But individual freedom is built on the basis of social stability, and the Chinese society because of its special structure, personal freedom is under the constraints of ritual, the ancient Chinese society only follow ritual to ensure social stability, therefore, ritual although more constraints on human behavior, but in one way, ritual is laid the foundation for personal freedom.
Therefore, from this aspect, Li are not against humanity, but an inevitable product of the special times.
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