1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）
Freedom, for Kant, is a power to initiate action from oneself, and the only way to exercise this power is through the law of one's own will, the moral law. Immoral action is not thereby rendered impossible, but it also does not express a genuine ability.
“There is only one innate right,” says Kant, “Freedom (independence from being constrained by another’s choice), insofar as it can coexist with the freedom of every other in accordance with a universal law”. Kant rejects any other basis for the state, in particular arguing that the welfare of citizens cannot be the basis of state power. He argues that a state cannot legitimately impose any particular conception of happiness upon its citizen. To do so would be for the ruler to treat citizens as children, assuming that they are unable to understand what is truly useful or harmful to themselves.
2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
“Ritual” or the etiquette and behavioral norms used in ancient China to maintain the social hierarchy system. In the Confucian ideological system, benevolence is subjective cultivation and belongs to inner consciousness; Li is an objective norm and an external constraint. Confucius said, "If a person is not benevolent, it is like propriety." (The Analects of Confucius, Eight Elements) He also said, "To restrain oneself and restore propriety is benevolence." (The Analects of Confucius, Yan Yuan) It can be seen that the two are interdependent. The maintenance of social order - etiquette, as a social norm and moral code, provides order and stability for society. Rites regulate people's behavior in society, guide them to respect others, abide by the law, avoid conflicts, and thus maintain social harmony and stability. Due to Confucius's belief that ritual is not only a form of ritual, but essentially contains political system content, the collapse of ritual symbolizes the loss of royal power and the disorder of social order. Therefore, he also wanted to maintain some ineffective rituals.
In fact, the "ritual" recognized in ancient society, in addition to traditional behavioral norms, was actually a realm, responsibility, and education. Although strictly speaking, "ritual" is only a moral constraint. But if we delve deeper into the connotation of "ritual", it is not difficult to find the content it contains, which can be described as encompassing everything. Spirit, thought, behavior, morality, as well as habits and customs in daily life, are actually subject to the constraints of "etiquette". Confucius was an educator who focused on educating students about etiquette as an important aspect of moral education. In feudal society, knowledge of books and etiquette became a fundamental symbol of benevolence and gentlemanly conduct. Rites shape people's personalities through a series of rituals and norms. These norms include respecting elders, respecting teachers, being humble and cautious, etc., which enable people to continuously improve their self-cultivation and moral character in daily life, and shape a positive and upward personality.
In the process of development, etiquette is closely linked to art and culture. For example, the integration of ancient etiquette with art forms such as music, dance, and drama has promoted the development and innovation of art. At the same time, ritual also provides rich themes and inspiration for artistic creation.
3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries
The difference between continental countries and maritime countries lies in the fact that continental countries mainly rely on agriculture and animal husbandry as their production methods, while maritime countries mainly rely on commercial trade as their production methods.
Continental countries are relatively conservative and have strong cohesion. Due to their high demand for land, they exploit their colonies severely. Marine countries, on the other hand, have a more adventurous spirit and a strong sense of external development, with relatively less exploitation of their colonies.
4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
Greek religion assumes that the world is ruled by the gods of the Pantheon, and that everything has a spirit. Therefore, the main characteristic of Greek religion is its great tolerance and the ability to combine and integrate different beliefs. Greek religious historians often describe discrimination during Hellenization as full of superstition, which is considered a natural growth in society. Philosophers once defined superstition as a cowardice in respecting divinity. The Romans also referred to Christianity as a superstitious religion. At that time, people had a high interest in the power that governed this world, and through the use of magic, they used this drum power to gain their own interests. People also like to use divination to predict the future or explain events happening in the present and future through supernatural forces. Divination can be divided into two types: natural and artificial. Natural divination may involve dreams, while artificial divination uses objects made of living or non living objects to predict the future. These mysterious phenomena have a high influence on religion, which includes interpretations of dreams and magical events. The influence of the Heroic era on Christianity also includes a mix of Greek religions.
5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?
No. Confucius is in line with inhumanity because of the existence of “the golden mean of the Confucian school”. The overwhelming doctrines or codes of conduct advocated by Confucius appear to be formidable when people look at them at first sight. However, no matter how difficult the disciplines, they have a common ground-- the Doctrine of the Mean—to advert or to moderate any extremes, striking a balance between the restrictions from the outside and the recklessness from the inside.
At the beginning of the Doctrine of the Mean, it is said that the mandate of heaven is nature, the recklessness of nature is the way, and the cultivation of the way is education. Following human nature is a natural principle, and for those in society, we need to cultivate ourselves based on human nature. Therefore, it can be seen that Confucianism does not suppress human nature, but acknowledges, conforms to, and takes human nature as its foundation, and cultivates oneself according to it, reflecting the social nature of Confucianism. In fact, the Doctrine of the Mean does not make people progress or not, but rather tells people the attitude that should be held regardless of strength, progress, or retreat. The saying goes, "holding two uses in the middle, too much is not enough." It is a balance point between the outside world and the inner world, as well as the situation and strength. It is not a front or back, nor is it left or right.
Confucianism believes that the Doctrine of the Mean is reflected in human beings, always without leaving them, without leaving human nature, without leaving life. As the saying goes, "The Dao cannot be separated for a moment, nor can it be separated from non Dao.". That is to say, what can exist without human beings is not the middle way. As for the root of the Doctrine of the Mean, according to Confucian interpretation, it comes from the highest value entity - the "Heavenly Way", and everyone upholds this common root. The saying goes, "The mandate of heaven is the nature, the recklessness is the way, and the cultivation of the Way is the teaching.". That is to say, the doctrine of the mean is bestowed by heaven, contained in human nature, possessed by everyone, and can be proven through reasonable means; Following natural human nature allows us to follow the Tao and cultivate humanity to educate the people. Therefore, showcasing the Tao of Heaven in the Doctrine of the Mean is the fundamental point of Chinese Confucian culture and the essence of education. It contains significant educational inspirations.
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