You have just read the following English passage from The Prince (Machiavelli) and Mencius A417： “And you have to understand this, that a prince, especially a new one, cannot observe all those things for which men are esteemed, being often forced, in order to maintain the state, to act contrary to fidelity, friendship, humanity, and religion. Therefore it is necessary for him to have a mind ready to turn itself accordingly as the winds and variations of fortune force it, yet, as I have said above, not to diverge from the good if he can avoid doing so, but, if compelled, then to know how to set about it.”
Task
Use only the three comparison headings below, write a brief analysis (1 sentence per heading) that explains how the two thinkers differ on each point.
Core value – What is the central value each author makes about how a ruler (or moral agent) should act?
Means & Ends – What is the relationship between means and ends in each case?
Moral Hierarchy – How does each author rank the relationship between virtue, propriety, pragmatism, and higher principles (e.g., the “Way,” the state’s survival)?
1. Core value:Machiavelli's central value is a ruler's effective acquisition and maintenance of power, while Confucius's is the moral character and virtuous conduct of the ruler.
2. Means & Ends: For Machiavelli, ethically questionable means are justified if they secure the desired political ends, whereas for Confucius, moral means (propriety and righteousness) are inseparable from and essential to achieving good ends.
3. Moral Hierarchy: Machiavelli subordinates traditional virtue and higher principles to the pragmatic needs of state survival, while Confucius establishes a hierarchy where higher moral principles (the "Way") dictate the practice of virtue and propriety, which in turn guide pragmatic action.
Mencius (Idealist): Human nature is inherently good. A ruler can gain the support of the people and the mandate of heaven by practicing benevolent governance and virtue, thereby maintaining their rule.
· Machiavelli (Realist): Human nature is inherently evil. A ruler must be pragmatic to retain power. They can disregard traditional morality and be adept at using violence and deception.
When comparing Mencius (A417) and Machiavelli (The Prince) on rulers’ roles, their views clash sharply: On core value, Mencius centers a ruler’s conduct on benevolence and serving the people, while Machiavelli prioritizes preserving state power—even at the cost of moral virtues. For means and ends, Mencius links moral governance (the means) to a just state (the end), but Machiavelli argues state survival (the end) justifies any necessary means, including unethical acts. Finally, in moral hierarchy, Mencius ranks the “Way” and virtue above pragmatism, whereas Machiavelli elevates state survival and pragmatism over moral principles.
1. Core value: Machiavelli prioritizes the state's preservation, while Mencius champions inherent moral virtue as the ruler's foundation.
2. Means & Ends: Machiavelli justifies flexible, even immoral means for a stable end, whereas Mencius demands that moral means are inseparable from achieving moral ends.
3. Moral Hierarchy: For Machiavelli, pragmatic state survival trumps consistent virtue, but for Mencius, moral principle is the supreme, non-negotiable guide.
Core value: Mencius holds that a ruler's core value is benevolence and righteous conduct, while Machiavelli argues it is the pragmatic maintenance of the state's power and security.
Means & Ends: For Mencius, moral means are inseparable from and necessary for achieving good ends, whereas for Machiavelli, the end of preserving the state justifies the use of otherwise immoral means.
Moral Hierarchy: Mencius establishes a fixed hierarchy where higher moral principles like benevolence and the "Way" are paramount, but Machiavelli makes pragmatism and state survival the supreme principle, to which virtue must often be subordinate.
While Machiavelli centers a ruler’s core value on state preservation (letting pragmatic ends override moral means and prioritizing state interest above virtue), Mencius anchors a ruler’s core value in benevolent governance (insisting moral means align with virtuous ends and ranking virtue as the supreme principle above expediency)
Core value: Machiavelli centers on a ruler prioritizing state maintenance over moral ideals, while Mencius emphasizes a ruler upholding benevolence (ren) as the non-negotiable core of ethical action.e
Means & Ends: Mchiavelli argues ends (state survival) justify morally questionable means, whereas Mencius insists virtuous means are inherently tied to just ends (governing for the people’s good).
Moral Hierarchy: Mchiavelli ranks pragmatism and state survival above virtue/religion, while Mencius places virtue or benevolence (ren), and adherence to the Way (Dao) above pragmatism or mere political expediency.
Core Values
Machiavelli: Survival of the State.
Mengzi: Good governance and morality.
Means and Purposes
Machiavelli: The purpose (guarantee) can be called the means.
Meng Zi: The means (virtue) and the end (the people) must be united.
The moral ladder
Machiavelli: Practicalism is higher than moral religion.
Meng Zi: Morality is above all, ritual and use are subject to the way.
Machiavelli argues a prince-especially a new one-can't always uphold virtues(fidelity, friendship, humanity, religion)esteemed by men. To maintain the statehe may need to act against them, but should stay flexible: cling to good ifpossible, yet know how to deviate when compelled.
Core value：Machiavelli centers on state survival as the ruler’s core value, while Mencius prioritizes benevolence (ren) as the moral foundation for a ruler’s actions.
Means & Ends：Machiavelli argues ends (state survival) justify morally questionable means, whereas Mencius insists virtuous means are inseparable from just ends (governing for the people’s well-being).
Moral Hierarchy：Machiavelli ranks pragmatism and state survival above virtue/religion, while Mencius places virtue and conformity to the “Way” above pragmatism, viewing them as prerequisites for stable rule.
Machiavelli’s central value for rulers is state survival, while Mencius centers on moral virtue (benevolence) as the foundation of just rule.
Means & Ends:
Machiavelli argues that ends (state maintenance) justify immoral means when necessary; Mencius holds that moral means (virtuous action) are inseparable from legitimate ends (good governacenter)
Moral Hierarchy:
Machiavelli ranks state survival above virtue/propriety; Mencius places the "Way" (moral principle) and virtue at the top, with pragmatism subordinate to ethical conduct
Core value: Machiavelli prioritizes state survival for rulers, while Mencius centers on benevolence (ren) as the ruler’s essential moral guide.
Means & Ends: Machiavelli holds that ends (state maintenance) justify morally questionable means; Mencius insists means must align with virtue to be legitimate.
Moral Hierarchy: Machiavelli ranks pragmatism and state survival above virtue；Mencius places the Way and virtue above pragmatism, viewing them as foundational to rule.
Core value: Machiavelli emphasizes the prince's pragmatism to maintain the state, while Mencius centers on a ruler's benevolence (ren) and moral virtue to follow the Way.
Means & Ends: Machiavelli allows immoral means if they serve the end of state survival, whereas Mencius holds that moral means are integral to achieving righteous ends like good governance.
Moral Hierarchy: Machiavelli ranks the state’s survival above traditional virtues, while Mencius places virtue and propriety at the top, with pragmatism subordinate to higher moral principles like the Way.
Core value：Machiavelli centers on the ruler's pragmatic flexibility for state survival, even at the cost of moral virtues, whereas Mencius emphasizes unwavering moral integrity and benevolence as the foundation of governance.
Means & Ends：For Machiavelli, the end of preserving the state justifies any necessary means, including immoral actions, while for Mencius, means must align with ethical principles, and ends never justify virtuous compromises.
Moral Hierarchy：Machiavelli prioritizes pragmatism and state security over traditional virtue or religion, whereas Mencius places virtue and the "Way" above all, subordinating practical concerns to higher moral ideals.
Mencius believed: A ruler must be benevolent and virtuous, ensuring the people's well-being. Whoever wins the people's hearts, wins the empire. Morality is the most powerful politics.
·Machiavelli believed: The primary goal of a ruler is to seize and maintain power. To achieve this, he can operate outside morality, must be cunning and strong, and make himself feared. Power is the end goal of politics.
One advocates "winning people through virtue," the other advocates "the ends justify the means."
Mencius sees benevolence as the essential core for rulers’ moral actions, while Machiavelli prioritizes state survival as the key guide for a prince.
Means & Ends
Mencius says moral means must match ends to make them valid, but Machiavelli thinks immoral means are okay if forced to keep the state.
Moral Hierarchy
Mencius puts virtue and the “Way” above pragmatism and propriety, while Machiavelli values state survival and pragmatism more than virtue and usual propriety.
Core value: Mencius thinked that expendience was based on kindness or love . But Machiavelli tened to think power or profits that was the most important expedience.
As core value,Machiavelli's central value is a ruler's effective acquisition and maintenance of state power,while Confucius's is the moral ruler's cultivation of virtue and performance of ritual to create a harmonious society.
As means and ends, Machiavelli,morally questionable means are fully justified by the end of securing the state, whereas for Confucius, moral means (virtue and propriety) are inseparable from and necessary for achieving the rightful end of virtuous governance.
Lastly,Machiavelli subordinates traditional virtue and propriety to the pragmatic necessity of state survival,while Confucius places conformity to the transcendent "Way" (Dao) and its virtues as the supreme principle to which all pragmatic action must be subordinate.
Core value: Machiavelli holds that a ruler must prioritize state maintenance (even acting against virtue), while Mencius centers on a ruler’s adherence to benevolence (the "Way") as the foundation of governance.
Mencius centers on benevolence (ren) as the non-negotiable core for rulers, while Machiavelli prioritizes the maintenance of the state as the ruler’s primary value.
Means & Ends
Mencius insists that moral means (virtuous conduct) are inseparable from just ends (governing for the people’s well-being), whereas Machiavelli argues that ends (state survival) justify morally questionable means when necessary.
Moral Hierarchy
Mencius ranks virtue and the “Way” above pragmatism, while Machiavelli elevates state survival (pragmatism) over virtue, friendship, and humanity when compelled.
Machiavelli centers on a ruler’s need to prioritize state survival (even at the cost of traditional virtues), while Mencius anchors a ruler’s actions in benevolence (ren) as the foundational moral duty to care for the people.
2. Means & Ends
For Machiavelli, ends (state maintenance) justify flexible, sometimes unethical means; Mencius argues that moral means (virtuous conduct) are inseparable from just ends (governing for the people’s well-being).
3. Moral Hierarchy
Machiavelli ranks state survival above virtues like fidelity or humanity, treating pragmatism as primary; Mencius places the “Way” (moral principle) and virtues (benevolence, propriety) above all, framing pragmatism as valid only when aligned with these higher ethical standards.
1. Core value – Mencius emphasizes that a ruler must act with inherent benevolence and righteousness as the foundation of governance, while Machiavelli argues that a prince must prioritize state security and power, even if it requires abandoning conventional virtues when necessary.
2. Means & Ends – For Mencius, moral means are inseparable from righteous ends, whereas Machiavelli justifies the use of immoral means when they are necessary to achieve political ends such as stability and control.
3. Moral Hierarchy – Mencius places universal virtues like humanity and righteousness above pragmatic concerns, while Machiavelli subordinates traditional morality to the higher principle of state survival and effective rule.
Means & Ends – For Machiavelli, the end of maintaining power justifies any means, including deceit or force, while for Mencius, virtuous means are indispensable and ends never justify transgressing righteousness.
Means & Ends – For Machiavelli, morally questionable means are justified by the end of preserving the state, whereas for Mencius, virtuous means are inseparable from and necessary for achieving righteous ends.
Mencius centers on benevolence (ren) as the non-negotiable core for rulers, while Machiavelli prioritizes the survival and stability of the state as the ruler’s primary value.
Mencius insists that moral means (upholding benevolence and righteousness) are inherent to just ends, whereas Machiavelli argues that ends (state preservation) justify morally questionable means when compelled.
Mencius ranks virtue and the "Way" above pragmatism, deeming propriety integral to moral conduct; Machiavelli elevates pragmatism and state survival over virtue, friendship, or religion as higher priorities.
Core value – Mencius holds that a ruler's core value is inherent virtue and benevolence, while Machiavelli argues it is the pragmatic maintenance of the state.
Means & Ends – For Mencius, virtuous means are inseparable from and necessary for achieving righteous ends, whereas for Machiavelli, the end of state security justifies the means, even if they are normally vicious.
Moral Hierarchy – Mencius subordinates pragmatism to the higher moral principle of the "Way," while Machiavelli makes state survival the supreme principle to which virtue and religion must often be sacrificed.
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